Queen Essays

3 SKILLS APPROACH

DESCRIPTION Like the trait approach discussed in Chapter 2, the skills approach takes a leader-centered perspective on leadership. However, in the skills approach we shift our thinking from focusing exclusively on traits to an emphasis on skills and abilities that can be learned and developed. Although personality and behavior certainly play a role in leadership, the skills approach emphasizes the capabilities, knowledge, and skills that are needed for effective leadership.

Researchers have studied leadership skills directly or indirectly for a number of years (see Bass, 2008, pp. 97–109). However, the impetus for research on skills was a classic article published by Katz in the Harvard Business Review in 1955, titled “Skills of an Effective Administrator.” Katz’s article appeared at a time when researchers were trying to identify a definitive set of leadership traits. Katz’s approach was an attempt to transcend the trait problem by addressing leadership as a set of developable skills. More recently, a revitalized interest in the skills approach has emerged. Beginning in the early 1990s, a multitude of studies have been published that contend that a leader’s effectiveness depends on the leader’s ability to solve complex organizational problems. This research has resulted in a comprehensive skill-based model of leadership that was advanced by M. Mumford and his colleagues (M. Mumford, Zaccaro, Harding, Jacobs, & Fleishman, 2000; Yammarino, 2000).

In this chapter, our discussion of the skills approach is divided into two parts. First, we discuss the general ideas set forth by Katz regarding three basic administrative skills: technical, human, and conceptual. Second, we discuss the recent work of Mumford and colleagues that has resulted in a skills-based model of organizational leadership.

Three-Skill Approach

Based on field research in administration and his own firsthand observations of executives in the workplace, Katz (1955, p. 34) suggested that effective administration (i.e., leadership) depends on three basic personal skills: technical, human, and conceptual. Katz argued that these skills are quite different from traits or qualities of leaders. Skills are what leaders can accomplish, whereas traits are who leaders are (i.e., their innate characteristics). Leadership skills are defined in this chapter as the ability to use one’s knowledge and competencies to accomplish a set of goals or objectives. This chapter shows that these leadership skills can be acquired and leaders can be trained to develop them.

Technical Skills

Technical skills are knowledge about and proficiency in a specific type of work or activity. They include competencies in a specialized area, analytical ability, and the ability to use appropriate tools and techniques (Katz, 1955). For example, in a computer software company, technical skills might include knowing software language and programming, the company’s software products, and how to make these products function for clients. Similarly, in an accounting firm, technical skills might include understanding and having the ability to apply generally accepted accounting principles to a client’s audit. In both of these examples, technical skills involve a hands-on activity with a basic product or process within an organization. Technical skills play an essential role in producing the actual products a company is designed to produce.

As illustrated in Figure 3.1, technical skills are most important at lower and middle levels of management and less important in upper management. For leaders at the highest level, such as CEOs, presidents, and senior officers, technical competencies are not as essential. Individuals at the top level depend on skilled followers to handle technical issues of the physical operation.

Description

Figure 3.1 Management Skills Necessary at Various Levels of an Organization

Source: Adapted from “Skills of an Effective Administrator,” by R. L. Katz, 1955, Harvard Business Review, 33(1), pp. 33–42.

Human Skills

Human skills are knowledge about and ability to work with people. They are quite different from technical skills, which have to do with working with things (Katz, 1955). Human skills are “people skills.” They are the abilities that help a leader to work effectively with followers, peers, and superiors to accomplish the organization’s goals. Human skills allow a leader to assist group members in working cooperatively as a group to achieve common goals. For Katz, it means being aware of one’s own perspective on issues and, at the same time, being aware of the perspective of others. Leaders with human skills adapt their own ideas to those of others. Furthermore, they create an atmosphere of trust where followers can feel comfortable and secure and where they can feel encouraged to become involved in the planning of things that will affect them. Being a leader with human skills means being sensitive to the needs and motivations of others and considering others’ needs in one’s decision making. In short, human skills are the capacity to get along with others as you go about your work.

Figure 3.1 shows that human skills are important in all three levels of management. Although managers at lower levels may communicate with a far greater number of followers, human skills are equally important at middle and upper levels.

Conceptual Skills

Broadly speaking, conceptual skills are the ability to work with ideas and concepts. Whereas technical skills deal with things and human skills deal with people, conceptual skills involve the ability to work with ideas. A leader with conceptual skills is comfortable talking about the ideas that shape an organization and the intricacies involved. They are good at putting the organization’s goals into words and can understand and express the economic principles that affect the organization. A leader with conceptual skills works easily with abstractions and hypothetical notions.

Conceptual skills are central to creating a vision and strategic plan for an organization. For example, it would take conceptual skills for a CEO in a struggling manufacturing company to articulate a vision for a line of new products that would steer the company into profitability. Similarly, it would take conceptual skills for the director of a nonprofit health organization to create a strategic plan to compete successfully with for-profit health organizations in a market with scarce resources. The point of these examples is that conceptual skills have to do with the mental work of shaping the meaning of organizational or policy issues—understanding what an organization stands for and where it is or should be going.

As shown in Figure 3.1, conceptual skills are most important at the top management levels. In fact, when upper-level managers do not have strong conceptual skills, they can jeopardize the whole organization. Conceptual skills are also important in middle management; as we move down to lower management levels, conceptual skills become less important.

Summary of the Three-Skill Approach

To summarize, the three-skill approach includes technical, human, and conceptual skills. It is important for leaders to have all three skills; depending on where they are in the management structure, however, some skills are more important than others.

Katz’s work in the mid-1950s set the stage for conceptualizing leadership in terms of skills, but it was not until the mid-1990s that an empirically based skills approach received recognition in leadership research. In the next section, the comprehensive

skill-based model of leadership is presented.

Skills Model

Beginning in the early 1990s, a group of researchers, with funding from the U.S. Army and Department of Defense, set out to test and develop a comprehensive theory of leadership based on problem-solving skills in organizations. The studies were conducted over a number of years using a sample of more than 1,800 Army officers, representing six grade levels, from second lieutenant to colonel. The project used a variety of new measures and tools to assess the skills of these officers, their experiences, and the situations in which they worked.

The researchers’ main goal was to explain the underlying elements of effective performance. They addressed questions such as these: What accounts for why some leaders are good problem solvers and others are not? What specific skills do high- performing leaders exhibit? How do leaders’ individual characteristics, career experiences, and environmental influences affect their job performance? As a whole, researchers wanted to identify the leadership factors that create exemplary job performance in an actual organization.

Based on the extensive findings from the project, M. Mumford and colleagues formulated a skill-based model of leadership (Figure 3.2). The model is characterized as a capability model because it examines the relationship between a leader’s knowledge and skills (i.e., capabilities) and the leader’s performance (M. Mumford, Zaccaro, Harding, et al., 2000, p. 12). Leadership capabilities can be developed over time through education and experience. Unlike the “great man” approach (discussed in Chapter 2 of this text), which implies that leadership is reserved for only the gifted few, the skills approach suggests that many people have the potential for leadership. If people are capable of learning from their experiences, they can acquire leadership skills. The skills approach can also be distinguished from the leadership approaches, discussed in subsequent chapters, that focus on behavioral patterns of leaders (e.g., the style approach, leader–member exchange theory, and transformational leadership). Rather than emphasizing what leaders do, the skills approach frames leadership as the capabilities (knowledge and skills) that make effective leadership possible (M. Mumford, Zaccaro, Harding, et al., 2000, p. 12).

Description

Figure 3.2 Influence of Leader Characteristics on Leader Performance

Source: Adapted from “Leadership Skills for a Changing World: Solving Complex Social Problems,” by M. D. Mumford, S. J. Zaccaro,

F. D. Harding, T. O. Jacobs, and E. A. Fleishman, The Leadership Quarterly, 11(1), p. 23. Copyright 2000 by Elsevier.

The skill-based model of M. Mumford’s group has five components: competencies, individual attributes, career experiences, environmental influences, and leadership outcomes (performance and problem solving) (Figure 3.2).

Individual Attributes

The leftmost box in Figure 3.2 identifies four individual attributes that have an impact on leadership skills and knowledge: general cognitive ability, crystallized cognitive ability, motivation, and personality. These attributes play important roles in the skills model. Complex problem solving is a very difficult process and becomes more difficult as people move up in an organization. These attributes support people as they apply their leadership competencies.

General Cognitive Ability.

General cognitive ability can be thought of as a person’s intelligence. It includes perceptual processing, information processing, general reasoning skills, creative and divergent thinking capacities, and memory skills. General cognitive ability is linked to biology, not to experience.

General cognitive ability is sometimes described as fluid intelligence, a type of intelligence that usually grows and expands up through early adulthood and then declines with age. In the skills model, intelligence is described as having a positive impact on the leader’s acquisition of complex problem-solving skills and the leader’s knowledge.

Crystallized Cognitive Ability.

Crystallized cognitive ability is intellectual ability that is learned or acquired over time. It is the store of knowledge we acquire through experience. We learn and increase our capacities over a lifetime, increasing our leadership potential (e.g., problem- solving skills, conceptual ability, and social judgment skills). In normally functioning adults, this type of cognitive ability grows continuously and typically does not fall off in adulthood. It includes being able to comprehend complex information and learn new skills and information, as well as being able to communicate to others in oral and written forms (Connelly et al., 2000, p. 71). Stated another way, crystallized cognitive ability is acquired intelligence: the ideas and mental abilities people learn through experience. Because it stays fairly stable over time, this type of intelligence is not diminished as people get older (Rose & Gordon, 2015).

Motivation.

Motivation is listed as the third attribute in the model. While Kerns (2015) identified three categories of motivations (self- interest, career considerations, and higher purposes) that propel leaders, the skills model takes a different approach, instead suggesting there are three aspects of motivation—willingness, dominance, and social good—that are essential to developing leadership skills (M. Mumford, Zaccaro, Harding, et al., 2000, p. 22).

First, leaders must be willing to tackle complex organizational problems. This first step is critical. For leadership to occur, a person must want to lead. Second, leaders must be willing to express dominance—to exert their influence, as we discussed in Chapter 2. In influencing others, the leader must take on the responsibility of dominance because the influence component of leadership is inextricably bound to dominance. Third, leaders must be committed to the social good of the organization. Social good is a broad term that can refer to a host of outcomes. However, in the skills model it refers to the leader’s willingness to take on the responsibility of trying to advance the overall human good and value of the organization. Taken together, these three aspects of motivation (willingness, dominance, and social good) prepare people to become leaders.

Personality.

Personality is the fourth individual attribute in the skills model. Placed where it is in the model, this attribute reminds us that our personality has an impact on the development of our leadership skills. For example, openness, tolerance for ambiguity, and curiosity may affect a leader’s motivation to try to solve some organizational problems. Or, in conflict situations, traits such as confidence and adaptability may be beneficial to a leader’s performance. The skills model hypothesizes that any personality characteristic that helps people to cope with complex organizational situations probably is related to leader performance (M. Mumford, Zaccaro, Harding, et al., 2000).

Competencies

As can be observed in Figure 3.2, problem-solving skills, social judgment skills, and knowledge are at the heart of the skills model. These three competencies are the key factors that account for effective performance (M. Mumford et al., 2012).

Problem-Solving Skills.

What are problem-solving skills? According to M. Mumford, Zaccaro, Harding, and colleagues (2000), problem-solving skills are a leader’s creative ability to solve new and unusual, ill-defined organizational problems. The skills include being able to define significant problems, gather problem information, formulate new understandings about the problem, and generate prototype plans for problem solutions. M. Mumford, Todd, Higgs, and McIntosh (2017, p. 28) identified nine key problem- solving skills leaders employ to address problems:

1. Problem definition, the ability to define noteworthy issues or significant problems affecting the organization 2. Cause/goal analysis, the ability to analyze the causes and goals relevant to addressing problems 3. Constraint analysis, the ability to identify the constraints, or limiting factors, influencing any problem solution 4. Planning, the ability to formulate plans, mental simulations, and actions arising from cause/goal and constraint analysis 5. Forecasting, the ability to anticipate the implications of executing the plans 6. Creative thinking, the ability to develop alternative approaches and new ideas for addressing potential pitfalls of a plan

identified in forecasting 7. Idea evaluation, the ability to evaluate these alternative approaches’ viability in executing the plan 8. Wisdom, the ability to evaluate the appropriateness of these alternative approaches within the context, or setting, in

which the leader acts 9. Sensemaking/visioning, the ability to articulate a vision that will help followers understand, make sense of, and act on

the problem

Figure 3.3 shows the relationship between these different skills as a developing process, where employment of one skill can lead to development of the next.

Description

Figure 3.3 Hypothetical Relationships Between Problem-Solving Skills

Source: Reprinted from “Cognitive Skills and Leadership Performance: The Nine Critical Skills,” by M. D. Mumford, E. M. Todd, C.

Higgs, and T. McIntosh, The Leadership Quarterly, 28(1), p. 28. Copyright 2017 by Elsevier.

To clarify how these problem-solving skills work in conjunction with one another, consider the following hypothetical situation. Imagine that you are the director of human resources for a medium-sized company and you have been informed by the president that you must develop a plan to reduce the company’s health care costs. In deciding what you will do, you demonstrate problem-solving skills in the following ways. First, you identify the full ramifications for employees of changing their health insurance coverage (problem definition; forecasting). What is the impact going to be (cause/goal analysis)? Second, you gather information about how benefits can be scaled back (constraint analysis). What other companies have attempted a similar change, and what were their results (forecasting)? Third, you find a way to teach and inform the employees about the needed change (planning; creative thinking). How can you frame the change in such a way that it is clearly understood (planning; creative thinking; wisdom)? Fourth, you create possible scenarios for how the changes will be instituted (forecasting; idea evaluation). How will the plan be described? Fifth, you look closely at the solution itself (idea evaluation). How will implementing this change affect the company’s mission and your own career (sensemaking; visioning)? Last, are there issues in the organization (e.g., union rules) that may affect the implementation of these changes (constraint analysis; forecasting)?

Problem-solving skills also demand that leaders understand their own leadership capacities as they apply possible solutions to the unique problems in their organization (M. Mumford, Zaccaro, Connelly, & Marks, 2000).

Being able to construct solutions plays a special role in problem solving. In considering solutions to organizational problems, skilled leaders need to attend to the time frame for constructing and implementing a solution, short-term and long-term goals, career goals and organizational goals, and external issues, all of which could influence the solution (M. Mumford, Zaccaro, Harding, et al., 2000, p. 15).

The process of dealing with novel, ill-defined organizational problems is complex and demanding for leaders. In many ways, it is like a puzzle to be solved. For leaders to solve such puzzles, the skill-based model suggests that problem-solving skills are essential.

Social Judgment and Social Skills.

In addition to problem-solving skills, effective leadership performance requires social judgment skills (Figure 3.2). Social judgment skills are the capacity to understand people and social systems (Zaccaro, Mumford, Connelly, Marks, & Gilbert, 2000, p. 46). They enable leaders to work with others to solve problems and to marshal support to implement change within an organization. Social judgment skills are the people skills that are necessary to solve unique organizational problems.

Conceptually, social judgment skills are like Katz’s (1955) early work on the role of human skills in management. In contrast to Katz’s work, Mumford and colleagues have delineated social judgment skills into the following: perspective taking, social perceptiveness, behavioral flexibility, and social performance.

Perspective taking means understanding the attitudes that others have toward a particular problem or solution. It is empathy applied to problem solving. Perspective taking means being sensitive to other people’s perspectives and goals—being able to understand their point of view on different issues. Included in perspective taking is knowing how different constituencies in an

organization view a problem and possible solutions (Gasiorek & Ebesu Hubbard, 2017). According to Zaccaro, Gilbert, Thor, and Mumford (1991), perspective-taking skills can be likened to social intelligence. These skills are concerned with knowledge about people, the social fabric of organizations, and the interrelatedness of each of them.

Social perceptiveness is insight and awareness into how others in the organization function. What is important to others? What motivates them? What problems do they face, and how do they react to change? Social perceptiveness means understanding the unique needs, goals, and demands of different organizational constituencies (Zaccaro et al., 1991). A leader with social perceptiveness has a keen sense of how followers will respond to any proposed change in the organization. In a sense, you could say it allows the leader to know the pulse of followers on any issue at any time.

In addition to understanding others accurately, social judgment skills involve reacting to others with flexibility. Behavioral flexibility is the capacity to change and adapt one’s behavior in light of understanding others’ perspectives in the organization. Being flexible means one is not locked into a singular approach to a problem. One is not dogmatic but rather maintains an openness and willingness to change. As the circumstances of a situation change, a flexible leader changes to meet the new demands.

Social performance includes a wide range of leadership competencies. Based on an understanding of followers’ perspectives, leaders need to be able to communicate their own vision to others. Skill in persuasion and communicating change is essential to do this. When there is resistance to change or interpersonal conflict about change, leaders need to function as mediators. To this end, skill in conflict resolution is an important aspect of social performance competency. In addition, social performance sometimes requires that leaders coach followers, giving them direction and support as they move toward selected organizational goals. In all, social performance includes many related skills that may come under the umbrella of communication.

To review, social judgment skills are about being sensitive to how your ideas fit in with others. Can you understand others’ perspectives and their unique needs and motivations? Are you flexible, and can you adapt your own ideas to those of others? Can you work with others even when there is resistance and conflict? Social judgment skills are the people skills needed to advance change in an organization.

Knowledge.

As shown in the model (Figure 3.2), the third aspect of competencies is knowledge. Knowledge is inextricably related to the application and implementation of problem-solving skills in organizations. It directly influences a leader’s capacity to define complex organizational problems and to attempt to solve them (M. Mumford, Zaccaro, Harding, et al., 2000). Knowledge is the accumulation of information and the mental structures used to organize that information. Such a mental structure is called a schema (a summary, a diagrammatic representation, or an outline). Knowledge results from having developed an assortment of complex schemata for learning and organizing data.

For example, all of us take various kinds of facts and information into our minds. As we organize that information into categories or schemata, the information becomes more meaningful. Knowledge emerges from the facts and the organizational structures we apply to them. People with a lot of knowledge have more complex organizing structures than those with less knowledge. These knowledgeable people are called experts.

Consider the following baseball example. A baseball expert knows a lot of facts about the game; the expert knows the rules, strategies, equipment, players, and much, much more. The expert’s knowledge about baseball includes the facts, but it also includes the complex mental structures used in organizing and structuring those facts. This person knows not only the season and lifetime statistics for each player, but also each player’s quirks and injuries, the personality of the manager, the strengths and weaknesses of available substitutes, and so on. The expert comprehends the complexities and nuances of baseball, and thus knows the game. The same is true for leadership in organizations. Leaders with knowledge know much about the products, the tasks, the people, the organization, and all the different ways these elements are related to each other. A knowledgeable leader has many mental structures with which to organize the facts of organizational life.

Knowledge has a positive impact on how leaders engage in problem solving. It is knowledge and expertise that make it possible for people to think about complex system issues and identify possible strategies for appropriate change. Furthermore, this capacity allows people to use prior cases and incidents to plan for needed change. It is knowledge that allows people to use the past to constructively confront the future.

To summarize, the skills model consists of three competencies: problem-solving skills, social judgment skills, and knowledge. Collectively, these three components are positively related to effective leadership performance (Figure 3.2).

Influences on Skills Development

As you can see in Figure 3.2, the skills model identifies two influences that are related to the leader’s attributes and competencies and leadership outcomes: career experiences and environmental influences.

Career Experiences.

The skills model suggests that the career experiences (represented in Figure 3.2 as the topmost box) acquired in the course of leaders’ careers influence their development of knowledge and skills for solving complex problems. M. Mumford, Zaccaro, Harding, and colleagues (2000, p. 24) pointed out that leaders can be helped through challenging job assignments, mentoring, appropriate training, and hands-on experience in solving new and unusual problems. In addition, the authors think that career experiences can positively affect the individual attributes of leaders. For example, certain on-the-job assignments could enhance a leader’s motivation or intellectual ability.

In the first section of this chapter, we discussed Katz’s (1955) work, which notes that conceptual skills are essential for upper- level administrators. This is consistent with M. Mumford, Zaccaro, Harding, and colleagues’ (2000) skills model, which contends that leaders develop competencies over time. Career experiences help leaders to improve their skills and knowledge over time. Leaders learn and develop higher levels of conceptual capacity if, as they ascend the organizational hierarchy, the kinds of problems they confront are progressively more complex and longer term (M. Mumford, Zaccaro, Connelly, et al., 2000). Similarly, upper-level leaders, as opposed to first-line supervisors, develop new competencies because they are required to address problems that are more novel, are more poorly defined, and demand more human interaction. As these people move through their careers, higher levels of problem-solving and social judgment skills become increasingly important (M. Mumford & Connelly, 1991).

So the skills and knowledge of leaders are shaped by their career experiences as they address increasingly complex problems in the organization. This notion of developing leadership skills is unique and quite different from other leadership perspectives. If we say, “Leaders are shaped by their experiences,” then it means leaders are not born to be leaders (M. Mumford, Zaccaro, Harding, et al., 2000). Leaders can develop their abilities through experience, according to the skills model.

Environmental Influences.

Another important component of the skills model is environmental influences, which is illustrated at the bottom of Figure 3.2. Environmental influences represent factors that lie outside the leader’s competencies, characteristics, and experiences. These environmental influences can be internal and external.

Internal environmental influences include such factors as technology, facilities, expertise of followers, and communication. For example, an aging factory lacking in high-speed technology could have a major impact on the nature of problem-solving activities. Another example might be the skill levels of followers: If a leader’s followers are highly competent, they will definitely improve the group’s problem solving and performance. Similarly, if a task is particularly complex or a group’s communication poor, the leader’s performance will be affected.

External environmental influences, including economic, political, and social issues, as well as natural disasters, can provide unique challenges to leaders. How U.S. public schools responded to the COVID-19 pandemic is a good recent example of this. As stay-at-home restrictions were enacted, most public schools closed months before the school year would have ended. A majority of these schools were unprepared to switch to online learning. Many districts faced an additional barrier in delivery of online learning due to access: 17% of U.S. students did not have computers in the home, and 18% of students lacked access to high-speed internet (Melia, Amy, & Fenn, 2019).

School leaders across the country scrambled to come up with solutions, including working with local governments and nonprofits to find ways to establish internet hotspots in neighborhoods and to secure and distribute devices to students so they could access online learning. In addition, because most teachers had never actually engaged in online teaching, they were untrained and struggled and underperformed. Others, however, found that having to teach online serendipitously improved their teaching performance. School leaders nationwide had to respond to the very unique challenges posed by an external force completely beyond their control and did so with varying degrees of success.

The skills model does not provide an inventory of specific environmental influences. Instead, it acknowledges the existence of these factors and recognizes that they are indeed influences that can affect a leader’s performance, but not usually under the control of the leader.

Leadership Outcomes

In the right-hand boxes in Figure 3.2, effective problem solving and performance are the outcomes of leadership. These outcomes are strongly influenced by the leader’s competencies (i.e., problem-solving skills, social judgment skills, and knowledge). When leaders exhibit these competencies, they increase their chances of problem solving and overall performance.

Effective Problem Solving.

As we discussed earlier, the skills model is a capability model, designed to explain why some leaders are good problem solvers and others are not. Problem solving is the keystone in the skills approach. In the model (Figure 3.2), problem-solving skills, as competencies, lead to effective problem solving as a leadership outcome. The criteria for good problem solving are determined by the originality and the quality of expressed solutions to problems. Good problem solving involves creating solutions that are logical, effective, and unique, and that go beyond given information (Zaccaro et al., 2000).

Performance.

In the model, performance outcomes reflect how well individual leaders have done their job. To measure performance, standard external criteria are used. If a leader has done well and been successful, the leader’s evaluations will be positive. Leaders who are effective receive good annual performance reviews, get merit raises, and are recognized by superiors and followers as competent leaders. In the end, performance is the degree to which a leader has successfully performed the assigned duties.

Taken together, effective problem solving and performance are the outcomes used to assess leadership effectiveness in the skills model. Furthermore, good problem solving and good performance go hand in hand.

Summary of the Skills Model

In summary, the skills model frames leadership by describing five components of leader performance. At the heart of the model are three competencies: problem-solving skills, social judgment skills, and knowledge. These three competencies are the central determinants of effective problem solving and performance, although individual attributes, career experiences, and environmental influences all have impacts on leader competencies. Through job experience and training, leaders can become better problem solvers and more effective leaders.

HOW DOES THE SKILLS APPROACH WORK? The skills approach is primarily descriptive: It describes leadership from a skills perspective. Rather than providing prescriptions for success in leadership, the skills approach provides a structure for understanding the nature of effective leadership. In the previous sections, we discussed the skills perspective based on the work of Katz (1955) and M. Mumford, Zaccaro, Harding, and colleagues (2000). What does each of these bodies of work suggest about the structure and functions of leadership?

The three-skill approach of Katz suggests that the importance of certain leadership skills varies depending on where leaders are in a management hierarchy. For leaders operating at lower levels of management, technical and human skills are most important. When leaders move into middle management, it becomes important that they have all three skills: technical, human, and conceptual. At the upper management levels, it is paramount for leaders to exhibit conceptual and human skills.

This approach was reinforced in a 2007 study that examined the skills needed by executives at different levels of management. The researchers used a four-skill model, similar to Katz’s approach, to assess cognitive skills, interpersonal skills, business skills, and strategic skills of 1,000 managers at the junior, middle, and senior levels of an organization. The results showed that interpersonal and cognitive skills were required more than business and strategic skills for those on the lower levels of management. As one climbed the career ladder, however, the execution of higher levels of all four of these leadership skills became necessary (T. Mumford, Campion, & Morgeson, 2007).

In their skills model, M. Mumford, Zaccaro, Harding, and colleagues (2000) provided a more complex picture of how skills relate to the manifestation of effective leadership. Their skills model contends that leadership outcomes are the direct result of a leader’s competencies in problem-solving skills, social judgment skills, and knowledge. Each of these competencies includes a large repertoire of abilities, and each can be learned and developed. In addition, the model illustrates how individual attributes such as general cognitive ability, crystallized cognitive ability, motivation, and personality influence the leader’s competencies. And finally, the model describes how career experiences and environmental influences play a direct or indirect role in leadership performance.

The skills approach works by providing a map for how to reach effective leadership in an organization: Leaders need to have problem-solving skills, social judgment skills, and knowledge. Workers can improve their capabilities in these areas through training and experience. Although individual leaders’ personal attributes affect their skills, it is a leader’s skills themselves that are most important in addressing organizational problems.

STRENGTHS In several ways, the skills approach contributes positively to our understanding about leadership. First, it is a leader-centered model that stresses the importance of developing particular leadership skills. It is the first approach to conceptualize and create a structure of the process of leadership around skills. Whereas the early research on skills highlighted the importance of skills and the value of skills across different management levels, the later work placed learned skills at the center of effective leadership performance at all management levels. The skills approach also supports succession planning in organizations by ensuring that there is a pool of potential managers ready to assume leadership at the next level (Griffith, Baur, & Buckley, 2019).

Second, the skills approach is intuitively appealing. To describe leadership in terms of skills makes leadership available to everyone. Unlike personality traits, skills are competencies that people can learn or develop. It is like playing a sport such as tennis or golf. Even without natural ability in these sports, people can improve their games with practice and instruction. The same is true with leadership. When leadership is framed as a set of skills, it becomes a process that people can study and practice to become better at performing their jobs.

An example of how individuals can improve their leadership skills is evident in game-based learning (GBL), which has been applied to developing leadership skills in recent years. Through GBL, individuals work toward a goal, choosing actions and experiencing the consequences of those actions in a risk-free setting. Through experimentation, participants learn and practice the right way to do things. In one study, a leadership game was found to improve motivation, facilitation, coaching, mindset changing, and communication (Sousa & Rocha, 2019) in participants. GBL also gives individuals at all levels in an organization access to training for leadership positions.

Third, the skills approach provides an expansive view of leadership that incorporates a wide variety of components, including problem-solving skills, social judgment skills, knowledge, individual attributes, career experiences, and environmental influences. Each of these components can further be subdivided into several subcomponents. The result is a picture of leadership that encompasses a multitude of factors. Because it includes so many variables, the skills approach captures many of the intricacies and complexities of leadership not found in other models.

Last, the skills approach provides a structure that is very consistent with the curricula of most leadership education programs. Leadership development was estimated to be a $14 billion industry in the United States (Gurdjian, Halbeisen, & Lane, 2014), and leadership education programs throughout the country have traditionally taught classes in creative problem solving, conflict resolution, listening, and teamwork, to name a few. The content of these classes closely mirrors many of the

components in the skills model. Clearly, the skills approach provides a structure that helps to frame the curricula of leadership education and development programs.

CRITICISMS Like all other approaches to leadership, the skills approach has certain weaknesses. First, the breadth of the skills approach seems to extend beyond the boundaries of leadership. For example, by including motivation, critical thinking, personality, and conflict resolution, the skills approach addresses more than just leadership. Another example of the model’s breadth is its inclusion of two types of intelligence (i.e., general cognitive ability and crystallized cognitive ability). Although both areas are studied widely in the field of cognitive psychology, they are seldom addressed in leadership research. By including so many components, the skills model of M. Mumford and others becomes more general and less precise in explaining leadership performance.

Second, related to the first criticism, the skills model is weak in predictive value. It does not explain specifically how variations in social judgment skills and problem-solving skills affect performance. The model suggests that these components are related, but it does not describe with any precision just how that works. In short, the model can be faulted because it does not explain how skills lead to effective leadership performance. Despite the billions of dollars spent on leadership training, the overall effectiveness of these programs has not been clearly substantiated (Kellerman, 2012). In addition, the ability of leaders to transfer skills training to the job may be limited by the followers, the situation, or the organizational culture.

The final criticism of the skills approach is that it may not be suitably or appropriately applied to other contexts of leadership. The skills model was constructed by using a large sample of military personnel and observing their performance in the armed services. This represents a highly structured, hierarchical organizational culture where the variance in leader behavior is restricted. This raises an obvious question: Can the results be generalized to other populations or organizational settings? Although some research suggests that these military findings can be generalized to other groups (M. Mumford, Zaccaro, Connelly, et al., 2000), more research is needed to address this criticism.

APPLICATION Despite its appeal to theorists and academics, the skills approach has not been widely used in applied leadership settings. For example, there are no training packages designed specifically to teach people leadership skills from this approach. Although many programs have been designed to teach leadership skills from a general self-help orientation, few of these programs are based on the conceptual frameworks set forth in this chapter.

Despite the lack of formal training programs, the skills approach offers valuable information about leadership. The approach provides a way to delineate the skills of the leader, and leaders at all levels in an organization can use it. In addition, this approach helps us to identify our strengths and weaknesses in regard to these technical, human, and conceptual skills. By taking a skills inventory such as the one provided at the end of this chapter, people can gain further insight into their own leadership competencies. Their scores allow them to learn about areas in which they may want to seek further training to enhance their overall contributions to their organization.

From a wider perspective, the skills approach may be used in the future as a template for the design of extensive leadership development programs. This approach provides the evidence for teaching leaders the important aspects of listening, creative problem solving, conflict resolution skills, and much more.

CASE STUDIES The following three case studies (Cases 3.1, 3.2, and 3.3) describe leadership situations that can be analyzed and evaluated from the skills perspective. The first case involves the principal investigator of a federally funded research grant. In the second case, we learn about how the owner of an Italian restaurant has created his own recipe for success. The third case profiles Kenyan teacher Peter Tabichi and his work to improve not only his students’ lives, but their community as well.

As you read each case, try to apply the principles of the skills approach to the leaders and their situations. At the end of each case are questions that will assist you in analyzing the case.

Case 3.1

A Strained Research Team

Dr. Adam Wood is the principal investigator on a three-year, $1 million federally funded research grant to study health education programs for older populations, called the Elder Care Project. Unlike previous projects, in which Dr. Wood worked alone or with one or two other investigators, on this project Dr. Wood has 11 colleagues. His project team is made up of two co-investigators (with PhDs), four intervention staff (with MAs), and five general staff members (with BAs). One year into the project, it has become apparent to Dr. Wood and the team that the project is underbudgeted and has too few resources. Team members are spending 20%–30% more time on the project than has been budgeted to pay them. Regardless of the resource strain, all team members are committed to the project; they believe in its goals and the importance of its outcomes. Dr. Wood is known throughout the country as the foremost scholar in this area of health education research. He is often asked to serve on national review and advisory boards. His publication record is second to none. In addition, his colleagues in the university know Dr. Wood as a very competent researcher. People come to Dr. Wood for advice on research design and methodology questions. They also come to him for

questions about theoretical formulations. He has a reputation as someone who can see the big picture on research projects.

Despite his research competence, there are problems on Dr. Wood’s research team. Dr. Wood worries there is a great deal of work to be done but that the members of the team are not devoting sufficient time to the Elder Care Project. He is frustrated because many of the day-to-day research tasks of the project are falling into his lap. He enters a research meeting, throws his notebook down on the table, and says, “I wish I’d never taken this project on. It’s taking way too much of my time. The rest of you aren’t pulling your fair share.” Team members feel exasperated at Dr. Wood’s comments. Although they respect his competence, they find his leadership style frustrating. His negative comments at staff meetings are having a demoralizing effect on the research team. Despite their hard work and devotion to the project, Dr. Wood seldom compliments or praises their efforts. Team members believe that they have spent more time than anticipated on the project and have received less pay or credit than expected. The project is sucking away a lot of staff energy, yet Dr. Wood does not seem to understand the pressures confronting his staff.

The research staff is starting to feel burned out, but members realize they need to keep trying because they are under time constraints from the federal government to do the work promised. The team needs to develop a pamphlet for the participants in the Elder Care Project, but the pamphlet costs are significantly more than budgeted in the grant. Dr. Wood has been very adept at finding out where they might find small pockets of money to help cover those costs.

Although team members are pleased that he is able to obtain the money, they are sure he will use this as just another example of how he was the one doing most of the work on the project.

Questions

1. Based on the skills approach, how would you assess Dr. Wood’s leadership and his relationship to the members of the Elder Care Project team? Will the project be successful?

2. Does Dr. Wood have the skills necessary to be an effective leader of this research team? 3. The skills model describes three important competencies for leaders: problem-solving skills, social judgment

skills, and knowledge. If you were to coach Dr. Wood using this model, what competencies would you address with him? What changes would you suggest that he make in his leadership?

Case 3.2

Andy’s Recipe

Andy Garafallo owns an Italian restaurant that sits in the middle of a cornfield near a large midwestern city. On the restaurant’s far wall is an elaborate mural of the canals of Venice. A gondola hangs on the opposite wall, up by the ceiling. Along another wall is a row of real potted lemon trees. “My ancestors are from Sicily,” says Andy. “In fact, I can remember seeing my grandfather take a bite out of a lemon, just like the ones hanging on those trees.”

Andy is very confident about his approach to this restaurant, and he should be, because the restaurant is celebrating its 25th anniversary. “I’m darned sure of what I want to do. I’m not trying different fads to get people to come here. People come here because they know they will get great food. They also want to support someone with whom they can connect. This is my approach. Nothing more, nothing less.” Although other restaurants have folded, Andy seems to have found a recipe for success.

Since opening his restaurant, Andy has had a number of managers. Currently, he has three: Kelly, Danielle, and Patrick. Kelly is a kitchen (food prep) manager who is known as very honest and dependable. She loves her work, and is efficient, good with ordering, and good with preparation. Andy really likes Kelly but is frustrated with her because she has such difficulty getting along with the salespeople, delivery people, and waitstaff.

Danielle, who works out front in the restaurant, has been with Andy the longest, six years. Danielle likes working at Garafallo’s—she lives and breathes the place. She fully buys into Andy’s approach of putting customers first. In fact, Andy says she has a knack for knowing what customers need even before they ask. Although she is very hospitable, Andy says she is lousy with numbers. She just doesn’t seem to catch on to that side of the business.

Patrick, who has been with Andy for four years, usually works out front but can work in the kitchen as well. Although Patrick has a strong work ethic and is great with numbers, he is weak on the people side. For some reason, Patrick treats customers as if they are faceless, coming across as very unemotional. In addition, Patrick tends to approach problems with an either–or perspective. This has gotten him into trouble on more than one occasion. Andy wishes that Patrick would learn to lighten up. “He’s a good manager, but he needs to recognize that some things just aren’t that important,” says Andy.

Andy’s approach to his managers is that of a teacher and coach. He is always trying to help them improve. He sees part of his responsibility as teaching them every aspect of the restaurant business. Andy’s stated goal is that he wants his managers to be “A” players when they leave his business to take on jobs elsewhere. Helping people to become the best they can be is Andy’s goal for his restaurant employees.

Although Andy works 12 hours a day, he spends little time analyzing the numbers. He does not think about ways to improve his profit margin by cutting corners, raising an item price here, or cutting quality there. Andy says, “It’s like this: The other night I got a call from someone who said they wanted to come in with a group and wondered if they could bring along a cake. I said ‘yes’ with one stipulation. . . . I get a piece! Well, the people came and spent a lot of money. Then they told me that they had actually wanted to go to another restaurant, but the other place would not

allow them to bring in their own cake.” Andy believes very strongly in his approach. “You get business by being what you should be.” Compared with other restaurants, his restaurant is doing quite well. Although many places are happy to net 5%–7% profit, Andy’s Italian restaurant nets 30% profit, year in and year out.

Questions

1. What accounts for Andy’s success in the restaurant business? 2. From a skills perspective, how would you describe the three managers, Kelly, Danielle, and Patrick? What does

each of them need to do to improve their skills? 3. How would you describe Andy’s competencies? Does Andy’s leadership suggest that one does not need all

three skills to be effective?

Case 3.3

2019 Global Teacher of the Year: Peter Tabichi

How does one take nearly 500 secondary math and science students at a school in an impoverished, remote part of Kenya with only one computer, a poor internet connection, and a student–teacher ratio of 58:1 and turn them into motivated, successful students and award-winning scientists?

That’s the question many have been asking Peter Tabichi, a math and science teacher at Keriko Mixed Day Secondary School in Pwani village, who was named the Varkey Foundation’s 2019 Global Teacher of the Year after being chosen from more than 10,000 nominations from 179 countries.

For Peter, who is a friar in the Franciscan Brotherhood, teaching starts with understanding his students, their cultures, and the challenges they face. Keriko is a government-run school in a part of Kenya frequently stricken with drought and famine, and Peter’s students come from poor families who barely eke out a living farming the land. A third of the school’s students are orphans or have only one parent and have lives marked by drug abuse, teenage pregnancies, early school dropout, young marriages, and suicide.

The fifth of eight children, Peter understands his students’ hardships. Peter’s father was a teacher and his mother a farmer. “We lived in a mud house, and we ate maize and vegetables grown in the garden,” he says. His mother died when he was 11, and his youngest sibling just 1. “After that, I had to go to the school where my father taught, and that was a 7-kilometer walk each way,” he says. “It was hard, but I knew I was lucky to be getting an education. My father took out loan after loan to put us through school” (Moorhead, 2019).

Peter went on to university to become a teacher and began his teaching career in a private school, and while he felt he was making a difference for his students, he wanted to do more. “I felt that the surrounding communities, they also needed my help. I said, ‘Let me stretch and extend the same love to the surrounding community’” (Talking Education, 2019).

“I felt increasingly inspired by the life of St. Francis of Assisi. His humility and simplicity appealed to me,” he says. Peter took his vows to become a Franciscan in 2018. “It’s a challenging life, but I knew it was the right path for me. There are big commitments to make, but this life brings me much happiness” (Moorhead, 2019).

Coming to Keriko, Peter began by giving away 80% of his income every year to provide the school’s students with books and uniforms because many of the students’ families could not afford to do so. Peter also saw that his students were “not able to concentrate mainly because they are not able to get enough meals at home” (Talking Education, 2019). To battle this food insecurity, he used his knowledge of science and farming to teach members of the community sustainable agriculture including ways of growing vegetables that use a very small portion of land and water. “Teaching the members of the community new ways of farming is a matter of life and death,” he says (Talking Education, 2019).

Part of his efforts in the community also involved convincing families and community members of the value of education. He would personally visit families whose children were at risk of dropping out of school and try to change the minds of those who expected their daughters to get married at an early age, encouraging the families to instead keep their girls in school (Zaki, 2019).

In the classroom, Peter saw that he needed to do more for his students than impart the basics of math and science. For many of his students, success in school was about instilling them with confidence. “It is all about having confidence in the student. Every child has potential, a gift or a talent. I try to engage students in various activities and mentor them. It is not a matter of telling them ‘do this’ and then walking away. You need to work with them closely” (Wodon, 2019).

To help build his students’ self-esteem, Peter started a series of school societies, notably the Talent Nurturing Club. “Everyone had something they were good at, and then they started to believe in themselves, and they started to do better at everything” (Moorhead, 2019).

Another pivotal group Peter formed was the Peace Club. Because the school’s students are a mix of genders and come from several different tribes and villages, there was the potential for students to form groups and for conflict to occur between the groups. Members of the Peace Club engage in activities like debating, tree planting, and sports where they have to work together. “They see that they can achieve as a group, not only as individuals. They see

themselves as people who are united. This also helps them do well in the classroom because they are able to work as a team,” Peter explains (Wodon, 2019).

Peter also expanded the school’s Science Club, an effort that has been so successful that 60% of the club’s research projects qualify for national competitions. At the 2018 Kenya Science and Engineering Fair, Keriko students showcased a device they invented to help people with vision and hearing impairments to measure objects. The club’s math and science team qualified to participate at the Intel-sponsored International Science and Engineering Fair in 2019. Another group of students was recognized by the Royal Society of Chemistry for their work in harnessing local plant life to generate electricity.

Despite the school only having one computer, limited internet access, and no library or labs, Peter has been able to incorporate information technology into 80% of his lessons. He visits internet cafés to download online content to be used offline in class, which he pays for out of his own pocket. He and his colleagues also visit struggling students’ homes on the weekends to provide one-on-one tutoring and meet their families to identify the challenges they face.

In just three years, Peter has dramatically improved his pupils’ achievement and self-esteem. The school’s enrollment has doubled, girls’ achievement has been boosted, and discipline cases have fallen from 30 per week to 3. In 2017, only 16 out of Keriko’s 59 graduating students went on to college; in 2018, 26 did (Wodon, 2019).

A colleague describes Peter as dedicated, passionate, and humble. “Bro Tabichi’s belief in his students has made our poorly equipped school perform well in national science competitions. . . . He became our role model” (Matara & Njeru, 2019).

“The fact that many students have varying needs, has taught me to be creative in using the best approaches while teaching them. They want to feel recognized, loved, appreciated and respected. They have taught me that for them to realize their dreams, you need to work with them closely with a lot of resilience, patience and dedication” (Koigi, 2019).

Questions

1. Applying the Katz three-skills approach, describe Peter Tabichi’s technical, human, and conceptual skills. Which of these three skills is most important to Tabichi’s success as a leader?

2. How would you describe Peter’s competencies? 3. Describe how you believe Peter’s career experiences and environmental influences have shaped his leadership

skills. 4. Describe some of the problem-solving skills Peter has exhibited. How have his competencies and individual

attributes contributed to his problem solving?

Leadership Instrument

Many questionnaires assess an individual’s skills for leadership. A quick search of the internet provides a host of these questionnaires. Almost all of them are designed to be used in training and development to give people a feel for their leadership abilities. Surveys have been used for years to help people understand and improve their leadership style, but most questionnaires are not used in research because they have not been tested for reliability and validity. Nevertheless, they are useful as self-help instruments because they provide specific information to people about their leadership skills.

In this chapter, we present a comprehensive skills model that is based on many empirical studies of leaders’ skills. Although the questionnaires used in these studies are highly reliable and are valid instruments, they are not suitable for our more pragmatic discussion of leadership in this text. In essence, they are too complex and involved. For example, M. Mumford, Zaccaro, Harding, and colleagues (2000) used measures that included open-ended responses and very sophisticated scoring procedures. Though critically important for validating the model, these complicated measures are less valuable as self- instruction questionnaires.

A skills inventory is provided in the next section to assist you in understanding how leadership skills are measured and what your own skills might be. Your scores on the inventory will give you a sense of your own leadership competencies. You may be strong in all three skills, or you may be stronger in some skills than in others. The questionnaire will give you a sense of your own skills profile. If you are stronger in one skill and weaker in another, this may help you determine where you want to improve in the future.

Skills Inventory

Purpose: The purpose of this questionnaire is to determine your leadership strengths and weaknesses.

Instructions: Read each item carefully and decide whether the item describes you as a person. Indicate your response to each item by selecting one of the five options to the right of each item.

Key: 1 = Not true 2 = Seldom true 3 = Occasionally true 4 = Somewhat true 5 = Very true

1. I enjoy getting into the details of how things work. 1 2 3 4 5

2. As a rule, adapting ideas to people’s needs is easy for me. 1 2 3 4 5

3. I enjoy working with abstract ideas. 1 2 3 4 5

4. Technical things fascinate me. 1 2 3 4 5

5. Being able to understand others is the most important part of my work. 1 2 3 4 5

6. Seeing the big picture comes easy for me. 1 2 3 4 5

7. One of my skills is being good at making things work. 1 2 3 4 5

8. My main concern is to have a supportive communication climate. 1 2 3 4 5

9. I am intrigued by complex organizational problems. 1 2 3 4 5

10. Following directions and filling out forms comes easily for me. 1 2 3 4 5

11. Understanding the social fabric of the organization is important to me. 1 2 3 4 5

12. I would enjoy working out strategies for my organization’s growth. 1 2 3 4 5

13. I am good at completing the things I’ve been assigned to do. 1 2 3 4 5

14. Getting all parties to work together is a challenge I enjoy. 1 2 3 4 5

15. Creating a mission statement is rewarding work. 1 2 3 4 5

16. I understand how to do the basic things required of me. 1 2 3 4 5

17. I am concerned with how my decisions affect the lives of others. 1 2 3 4 5

18. Thinking about organizational values and philosophy appeals to me. 1 2 3 4 5

Scoring

The skills inventory is designed to measure three broad types of leadership skills: technical, human, and conceptual. Score the questionnaire by doing the following. First, sum the responses on items 1, 4, 7, 10, 13, and 16. This is your technical skill score. Second, sum the responses on items 2, 5, 8, 11, 14, and 17. This is your human skill score. Third, sum the responses on items 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, and 18. This is your conceptual skill score.

Total scores: Technical skill _____ Human skill _____ Conceptual skill _____

Scoring Interpretation

For each category:

23–30 High Range

14–22 Moderate Range

6–13 Low Range

The scores you received on the skills inventory provide information about your leadership skills in three areas. By comparing the differences between your scores, you can determine where you have leadership strengths and where you have leadership weaknesses. Your scores also point toward the level of management for which you might be most suited.

Summary

The skills approach is a leader-centered perspective that emphasizes the competencies of leaders. It is best represented in the early work of Katz (1955) on the three-skill approach and the more recent work of M. Mumford and his colleagues (M. Mumford, Zaccaro, Harding, et al., 2000), who initiated the development of a comprehensive skills model of leadership.

In the three-skill approach, effective leadership depends on three basic personal skills: technical, human, and conceptual. Although all three skills are important for leaders, the importance of each skill varies between management levels. At lower management levels, technical and human skills are most important. For middle managers, the three different skills are equally important. At upper management levels, conceptual and human skills are most important, and technical skills become less important. Leaders are more effective when their skills match their management level.

In the 1990s, the skills model was developed to explain the capabilities (knowledge and skills) that make effective leadership possible. Far more complex than Katz’s paradigm, this model delineated five components of effective leader performance: competencies, individual attributes, career experiences, environmental influences, and leadership outcomes. The leader competencies at the heart of the model are problem-solving skills, social judgment skills, and knowledge. These competencies are directly affected by the leader’s individual attributes, which include general cognitive ability, crystallized cognitive ability, motivation, and personality. Individual leaders’ competencies are also affected by their career experiences and the environment. The model postulates that effective problem solving and performance can be explained by a leader’s basic competencies and that these competencies are in turn affected by the leader’s attributes, experience, and environment.

There are several strengths in conceptualizing leadership from a skills perspective. First, it is a leader-centered model that stresses the importance of the leader’s abilities, and it places learned skills at the center of effective leadership performance. Second, the skills approach describes leadership in such a way that makes it available to everyone. Skills are competencies that we all can learn to develop and improve. Third, the skills approach provides a sophisticated map that explains how effective leadership performance can be achieved. Based on the model, researchers can develop complex plans for studying the leadership process. Last, this approach provides a structure for leadership education and development programs that include creative problem solving, conflict resolution, listening, and teamwork.

In addition to the positive features, there are some negative aspects to the skills approach. First, the breadth of the model seems to extend beyond the boundaries of leadership, including, for example, conflict management, critical thinking, motivation theory, and personality theory. Second, the skills model is weak in predictive value. It does not explain how a person’s competencies lead to effective leadership performance.

Third, the skills model is weak in general application because it was constructed using data only from military personnel. Until the model has been tested with other populations, such as small and large organizations and businesses, its basic tenets must still be questioned.

Descriptions of Images and Figures Back to Figure

The skills needed at each level of management are as follows.

Top management: Equal amount of human and conceptual skills, and a lesser amount of technical skills.

Middle management: Equal amount of technical, human, and conceptual skills.

Supervisory management: Equal amount of technical and human skills, and a lesser amount of conceptual skills.

Back to Figure

Individual attributes are general cognitive ability, crystallized cognitive ability, motivation, and personality. Competencies are problem-solving skills, social judgement and social skills, and knowledge. Individual attributes influence competencies, which influence problem solving, which in turn influence performance. Career experiences influence individual attributes and competencies. Environmental influences affect individual attributes, competencies, problem-solving, and performance. Leadership outcomes are problem-solving and performance.

Back to Figure

The steps are as follows:

Problem definition

Cause or goal analysis and constraint analysis

Planning

Forecasting

Creative thinking

Idea evaluation and wisdom, which influence each other

Sensemaking and visioning

4 BEHAVIORAL APPROACH

DESCRIPTION The behavioral approach emphasizes the behavior of the leader. This distinguishes it from the trait approach (Chapter 2), which emphasizes the personality characteristics of the leader, and the skills approach (Chapter 3), which emphasizes the leader’s capabilities. The behavioral approach focuses exclusively on what leaders do and how they act. In shifting the study of leadership to leader behaviors, the behavioral approach expanded the research of leadership to include the actions of leaders toward followers in various contexts.

Researchers studying the behavioral approach determined that leadership is composed of two general kinds of behaviors: task behaviors and relationship behaviors. Task behaviors facilitate goal accomplishment: They help group members to achieve their objectives. Relationship behaviors help followers feel comfortable with themselves, with each other, and with the situation in which they find themselves. The central purpose of the behavioral approach is to explain how leaders combine these two kinds of behaviors to influence followers in their efforts to reach a goal.

Many studies have been conducted to investigate the behavioral approach. Some of the first studies to be done were conducted at The Ohio State University in the late 1940s, based on the findings of Stogdill’s (1948) work, which pointed to the importance of considering more than leaders’ traits in leadership research. At about the same time, another group of researchers at the University of Michigan was conducting a series of studies that explored how leadership functioned in small groups. A third line of research was begun by Blake and Mouton in the early 1960s; it explored how managers used task and relationship behaviors in the organizational setting.

Although many research studies could be categorized under the heading of the behavioral approach, the Ohio State studies, the Michigan studies, and the studies by Blake and Mouton (1964, 1978, 1985) are strongly representative of the ideas

LEADERSHIP ESSENTIALS: Practical and Proven Approaches

in Leadership and Supervision by

Olin O. Oedekoven, PhD, John Lavrenz, M.S. Deborah Robbins, M.P.A.

Copyright © 2018 Revised Edition by the Peregrine Leadership Institute, LLC.

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be used or reproduced in any manner whatsoever without written

permission except in the case of brief quotations embodied in critical articles and reviews. For information, write to

Peregrine Leadership Institute Box 741

1001 S. Douglas Hwy., Suite 160 Gillette, WY 82717

ISBN: 978-0-9908279-7-9 (hardcover) ISBN: 978-0-9908279-3-1 (paperback)

ISBN: 978-0-9908279-4-8 (eBook)

Printed in the United States of America

We would like to dedicate this book to John Lavrenz. John was our co-author on the project, colleague and presenter with our leadership development workshops, a mentor to so many leaders over the years, and, most importantly, our friend. His leadership influence is felt throughout in these pages and will continue with all of the lives he touched during his values-based leadership journey. John “walked the talk” as a leader of integrity, and we are all richer for the time we have spent with him.

— Olin O. Oedekoven and Deborah K. Robbins

Contents

Foreword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

Chapter 1 — Understanding Leadership . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 Leadership Defined . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 e Values and Attributes of Leadership . . . . . . . . . . . 13 e Power of Positive Expectations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 e 14 Characteristics of Great Leaders . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

Chapter 2 — Teams, Teamwork, and Leadership Styles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 Leadership Styles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 Leading Teams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 e 6 C’s of Teamwork . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 Seven Keys to Team Leadership . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

Chapter 3 — Conflict in the Workplace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 Dealing with Team Conflict . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 Confronting Difficult Situations with People. . . . . . . . 61 Managing Team Conflict . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66

Chapter 4 — Recruiting and Selecting Your Team . . . . . 77 Hiring for Attitude. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 Why Quality Recruiting and Selection Matters. . . . . . 80 Developing a Recruiting and Selection Strategy . . . . . 82 Reviewing the Resume and Job Application . . . . . . . . 86 Hire the Most Qualified Applicant Using a Fair and Nondiscriminatory Process. . . . . . . . . . . 91 Developing the Interview and Questions . . . . . . . . . . . 96

Chapter 5 — Leadership Communications . . . . . . . . . . 111 Communications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 Active Listening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 Giving and Receiving Feedback. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 Communicating Non-Defensively . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119

Chapter 6 — Project Management Leadership . . . . . . . 123 Project Planning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 Deliberate Decision-Making . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127

Chapter 7 — Stress Management for Leaders . . . . . . . . 131 Managing Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 e 50 Proven Stress Reducers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 Planning to Manage Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139

Chapter 8 — Leadership Ethics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 Ethical Choices. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 Values-based Decision Making . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153 Business Ethics and Compliance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156

Chapter 9 — Time Management and Delegation . . . . . 165 Time Management. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165 Delegation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170

Chapter 10 — Leading Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179 Why Change? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179 Resistance to Change. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182 Barriers to Effective Change. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187 Leading Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189

Chapter 11 — Performance Management . . . . . . . . . . . 195 Identifying and Solving Performance Problems . . . . 195 Performance Counseling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203 Maximizing Employee Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208

Chapter 12 — e Art of Leadership . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213 Teaching and Training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213 Coaching and Mentoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224 Motivating and Inspiring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233 Strategic Leadership . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237

Final oughts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239 References and Selected Bibliograph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241 Meet the Authors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245 Working with Peregrine Leadership Institute. . . . . . . . . . 251 Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253

Foreword

This is not a book that you have in your hands. A book, aer all, is merely a set of written sheets of paper hinged

together on one side to allow readers to flip through and glance casually at each side.

is is an understanding. It is a collective release of leadership tips and techniques as simple as your most basic needs, yet as complex as the nature of the cultural diversities in which you live today. It is a manual on how to live in a world where globalization and technological advances have toppled the walls of traditional leadership hierarchies. It’s a world in which leaders must come to know and understand the evolution of change and how to develop, inspire, and guide their organiza- tions (and their careers) through the tactical challenges coming at them both faster and different than ever before.

Leadership Essentials is a way of understanding how to survive in the ever-changing world of leadership. It is a compilation of many years of experience, of lessons learned along our own leadership journeys.

We lived and breathed every minute of this guide, shedding tears of frustration during those tenuous times and laughing when everything fell into place and we achieved leadership excellence. We held nothing back.

When we decided to put into words all that we have experienced during our leadership upbringings, it made sense to bare it all, to include not only our brief moments of fame, but those oen-staggering moments of shame as well. Aer all, “that which does not kill us only makes us stronger.”

To achieve success in today’s highly complex world of leader- ship, you must be open to the fact that change is inevitable and fast. Nations are experiencing dramatic shifts in their political, economic, and social structures. Terms such as demographics and cultural awareness were once nothing more than mandatory inclusions in company handbooks, policies, and procedures. Now, the essence of those genera- tional and cultural differences is driving decision making like never before. One of the key skills of effective leadership is the ability to lead change. Your survival depends on it.

Remember, leaders are made, not born. We made mistakes and so will you. However, your ability to get up, dust yourself off, and put yourself at the front of the pack again and again will set you apart from those individuals who only wish they were leaders. We don’t profess to know everything there is to know about leadership. What we do know, we’ve included in this guide. Read it well and return to it oen. Each chapter contains real lessons learned from real people. is is your first step of a lifelong journey called “leadership.” Good luck and let the journey begin.

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Chapter 1

Understanding Leadership

Management is about doing things right. You manage things; you lead people.

Leadership Defined

Leadership is the process of influencing others to understand and agree about what needs to be done, how it can be done effectively, and the process of facilitating individual and collective efforts to accomplish the shared objectives.

Influencing — getting people to willingly do what you want them to do. How do leaders influence?

• Communicate (written, verbal, nonverbal) • Set the example • Demonstrate what right looks like

Understand and Agree — giving reasons for why we do what we need to do. How do leaders develop understanding and agreement? We communicate:

• Company goals (bigger picture) • Our mission/vision • Our departmental goals

Done Effectively — e way you want to accomplish what it is that you want to accomplish. How do leaders develop effective- ness? • Setting and maintaining standards • Teaching, coaching, and mentoring for performance

Facilitating Individual and Collective Efforts — Developing interest, will, desire, and ensuring the resources are there for them to do what they need to do. How do leaders facilitate effort? • Give employees a challenge • When they succeed, praise them • Coach/counsel them on how to do it better • Set the example through your behaviors and actions • Provide the resources they need for the mission

Accomplish the Shared Objectives — e goals, objectives, and the vision. How do leaders develop an understanding of the shared objectives? • Communicate, communicate, and communicate! • Team planning and preparing • Assessing aer the project is completed

You manage things; you lead people. Management is about doing things right. Leadership is about doing the right things. Leadership depends on the situation, the work setting, and the nature of the problem. Leadership also shis with time and responsibilities. Leadership and management are not mutually exclusive activities.

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You do not have to have subordinates to be a leader—being a leader means striving to BE, KNOW, and DO what is right, all the time. We will, however, make mistakes. How we deal with those mistakes is what distinguishes us as a learning leader.

The Values and Attributes of Leadership

ere are seven essential values and seven critical attributes of leadership.

Leadership Values

Integrity: Demonstrating the courage necessary to support your leadership values and those of the organization; exemplifying your values at all times; treating others fairly and consistently; choosing the harder right over the easier wrong; doing the right things, not just doing things right. is leadership value is essential. If you do not display integrity in your behavior at all times, you may not have the opportunity to recover.

Honesty: Being honest in all your communications, interactions with others, and with yourself; saying what you mean and meaning what you say.

Loyalty: Fulfilling your obligations to your team, peers, and superiors; being loyal to your team and organization with support on and off the job; remaining faithful and steadfast to your values; and holding what others say in trust.

Accountability: Being accountable for all your actions and the results; remembering that while you can delegate author- ity, you can never delegate responsibility—you, as the leader,

UNDERSTANDING LEADERSHIP | 13

are always responsible for the successes and failures of your team, acknowledging the contributions of others, and assum- ing the responsibility even when others will not.

Respect: Treating them with respect; treating others fairly and consistently; giving away respect and not making others have to earn your respect; respecting, acknowledging, and publicly recognizing the contributions of others.

Trust: Being approachable, acknowledging, considerate, accepting, and respectful; building trust within your team through open and honest communications; demonstrating compassion and understanding toward others.

Selflessness: Being a leader who gives credit where credit is due; helping others with the mundane tasks, making a sincere and honest effort to examine problems and issues from the perspective of others; putting the needs of others before your own; promoting the interests of the team and the organization ahead of your own.

Seven Key Leadership Attributes

Self-Discipline: Maintaining self-control over your emotions, temper, and language; following through with what you say you will do; choosing the best course of action that will support the organizational goals; maintaining your enthusiasm and spirit even when the situation is difficult.

Initiative: Seeing what needs to be done and doing it without having to be told what to do; encouraging others to participate

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and promoting their ideas; giving credit where credit is due; conducting both formal and informal assessments for all work that has been completed to help foster continuous improve- ment in the workplace.

Confidence: Exercising good judgment with people and the work that needs to be done; maintaining your perspective of the bigger picture and the goals of the organization; acting with courage during the difficult times.

Decisive: Making sound, timely decisions and communicating them clearly and concisely; not withholding decisions that you should be making; remaining steadfast with your decisions, but being open to adapting to new information or changed conditions; not yielding to impulses, but rather examining problems logically and systematically without prejudice or bias.

Valuing Diversity: Respecting cultural differences; maintain- ing cultural awareness; appreciating the value of diversity and the benefits it brings to an organization; being mindful and respectful of differences in the workplace and understanding what it takes to motivate, inspire, and lead the cultural and generational differences in the organization.

Empowering: Enabling others to make decisions on their own by giving them an understanding of your intent, along with all information needed to make good decisions on their own; not micromanaging the work; encouraging others to take the initiative; promoting others’ ideas and giving credit where

UNDERSTANDING LEADERSHIP | 15

credit is due; and recognizing and rewarding the achievement of others.

Humility: Recognizing that it is not about you—it is about the success of your team and the organization; looking outward to attribute success and looking inward to apportion failure; and maintaining your sense of humor—always taking the work seriously, but not taking yourself too seriously.

The Power of Positive Expectation1

e concept of Pygmalion Leadership has its roots in ancient Greek mythology. It says that your employees will rise only to the level that you expect them to reach. at is, what you expect of your employees will have a direct bearing on their performance’s outcome.

If you believe that a person will succeed and the person knows this expectation, most people will rise to the level you expect from them.

Your expectations will drive team performance. If you believe that a person will fail, most likely they will believe it as well (and fail). But if you believe that a person will succeed and the person knows this, most people will rise to the level you expect from them.

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e Self-Fulfilling Prophecy

People have an extraordinary influence on others—and oen don’t know it. Psychologists have demonstrated that the power of expectation alone can influence others’ behavior. The phenomenon has been called the “self-fulfilling prophecy” or the “Pygmalion Effect.” People sometimes become what others expect them to become. Many supervisors are able to develop competent employees and stimulate their performance.

• What is their secret?

• How is the successful supervisor different from the unsuccessful ones, the ones who cannot develop their employees?

• What are the implications of this for the growing problem of turnover and disillusionment among promising employees?

e self-fulfilling prophecy shows how it can either be a useful or a destructive tool in the supervisors’ hands.

e Pygmalion Effect

All it takes is really believing. Supervisors can create better employees by simply believing in them. is is even truer when working with underachievers.

If you tell a grammar school classroom teacher that a child is bright, the teacher will be more supportive, teach more difficult material, allow more time to answer questions, and provide more feedback to that child. e child receiving this attention and basking in the teacher’s beliefs learns more and

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is better in school. It does not matter whether the child is actually bright. All that matters is that the teacher believes in the child. is is also true of managers and workers.

is uniquely human phenomenon is called the Pygmalion Effect. It is a persistently held belief in another person such that the belief becomes a reality. e person believed in, becomes the person they are perceived to be.

Did you ever notice that there are some people with whom we naturally feel comfortable: those who think our ideas are great? When they listen to us, we express ourselves clearly and are able to make ideas ring with clarity and insight. This is because they, believing we are bright, see us in this light. We, in turn, knowing how they feel about us, work hard to make sure they are satisfied with our answers.

e opposite is also true. ere are people with whom we are not comfortable and whom we believe do not like us. We avoid these people and do not do our best when we are around them. We are hesitant and much less articulate. Most of the time, we are less likely to try very hard to be understood. We become victims of a label that someone gave us.

This is also true in the supervisor/employee relationship. Researchers looked at twelve separate research studies from different work settings involving a total of 2,874 participants and using a technique called meta-analysis. All studies involved employees and their supervisors. Each study randomly assigned employees to two groups, and supervisors were told that one group of employees had considerably greater potential than

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the other. us, supervisors developed a positive attitude about one group of employees who were basically no different than the employees in the other group.

Employees in the positive-information group responded with greater productivity with only two exceptions. e magnitude of these gains seemed to be dependent on the circumstances of the work relationship. The greatest gains were seen in military training settings. The researchers suspect this is because in the military, it is easier to control the information supervisors receive, whereas in a business situation, word-of- mouth and reputation may bleed into the situation, making less believable the positive information received by the supervisor.

However, when looking at findings in elementary school settings, there seems to be something that happens in a learning situation that is different from what happens in a work situation. It is possible that a positive attitude on the part of supervisors may have a greater effect on learning than it does on work productivity.

e second-greatest gains were obtained in situations where disadvantaged workers (those who were less likely to be success- ful) were randomly assigned to two groups. e group for which the supervisor was given positive information made significant gains over the group for which the supervisor was not given positive information.

It is suspected that people with low self-esteem and self-efficacy are more likely to respond to positive feedback. is indicates that supervisors have the potential to create high-performing

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employees. All that is needed is for them to believe that an employee has potential. is is probably because the employee is more fully engaged and motivated when working for a positive-thinking supervisor, thereby allowing the organization to tap into their full capabilities.

ere were fewer gains noted when supervisors had less direct interaction with subordinates, such as in sales situations where employees worked independently and away from their supervisor. In addition, women supervisors were less likely to be affected by the Pygmalion Effect. It was observed that women, regardless of their beliefs, seemed to treat employees equally. erefore, the group of employees about whom a woman supervisor was given positive information made less significant gains over the other group. This was even more pronounced when the supervisor and all the employees were women.

The Pygmalion Effect is an important key to creating or improving a workforce. It believes in your employee’s capabiltiy to achieve goals. Everything should be done to create a highly positive attitude about employees in the minds of supervisors, and employees should be made to feel that their supervisors and the organization believe in their potential as people.

Leaders should present new employees to supervisors in a positive light while highlighting the new employee’s potential, and making sure that the supervisor and the work group have a clear expectation that the new employee will make a significant impact on the group’s ability to succeed. Supervisors should

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be trained in how to impart a positive, motivating attitude that fosters a belief in the employee’s ability to perform.

Employees should have a clear understanding that there is no question of them performing well. Employees should be given training opportunities that bring out potential rather than focus on weaknesses. Overall, the organization should strive to create an understanding among its employees that they all have potential and all that is needed is for that potential to be brought out.

Climate

Negative Pygmalion

Poor behaviors that communicate low expectations include: • Being distracted, in a hurry, or not giving an employee your full attention

• Verbally criticizing an employee’s competence or potential

• Negative nonverbal cues through tone of voice, or face and body gestures

Positive Pygmalion

Good behaviors that communicate high expectations include:

• Being verbally supportive and encouraging

• Providing positive nonverbal cues through tone of voice, eye contact, facial expressions, body posture, and movements

• Helping employees set challenging goals

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Input

Negative Pygmalion

Poor behaviors that communicate low expectations include:

• Not giving people vital information to do a job

• Not giving people sufficient direction or guidance

• Waiting too long to check on progress or provide any needed course correction

• Treating people like they are incompetent by providing only limited or sketchy information (only on a “need to know” basis)

Positive Pygmalion

Good behaviors that communicate high expectations include:

• Spending extra time with people

• Providing ideas to follow up on or sources for further information (giving team members enough resources or ideas while allowing them to retain autonomy and ownership of projects)

Output Negative Pygmalion

Poor behaviors that communicate low expectations include:

• Cutting people off when they are speaking

• Not seeking their opinions or insights

• Limiting the number and scope of their work assignments

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Positive Pygmalion

Good behaviors that communicate high expectations include:

• Allowing them to express their opinions and ideas (even disagreeing opinions)

• Giving them new assignments (or a variety of assignments, including incrementally challenging assignments)

• Giving them opportunities to learn or practice skills (e.g., training, projects)

• Allowing them to gain exposure to, and visibility with, other people and departments (especially upward in the organization)

Feedback Negative Pygmalion

Poor behaviors that communicate low expectations include:

• Providing mostly negative, vague, or limited feedback

• Criticizing the person (instead of the behaviors), making negative generalizations (e.g., negative labels)

Positive Pygmalion

Good behaviors that communicate high expectations include: • Providing helpful suggestions on how people might be able to improve or do things better

• Positively reinforcing desirable behaviors (praise, recognition, rewards, etc.). is should be sincere, specific and frequent

UNDERSTANDING LEADERSHIP | 23

• Making sure any feedback regarding poor performance is done in a positive way, where the employee can sense that you have their best interests at heart and you reinforce your belief in their ability to do better

Expectations A well-defined expectation is the foundation for goal achieve- ment. It formalizes:

• What is to be accomplished • Who will be involved • When the activity will be accomplished • How resources will be used

Expectations should include team values and team rules. Make life easier for yourself—write down the expectations, rules, and your code of conduct, and share these with your team.

S. M. A. R. T. Objectives

Specific Measurable Achievable Realistic Time-Bound

In summary, use the Pygmalion Effect, oen known as the Power of Expectations, by considering:

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• Every supervisor has expectations of the people who report to them.

• Supervisors communicate these expectations consciously or unconsciously.

• People consciously or unconsciously pick up on these expectations from their supervisor.

• People perform in ways that are consistent with the expectations they have picked up on from the supervisor.

The power of expectations enables team members to excel in response to a manager’s message that they are capable of success and expected to succeed. e Pygmalion Effect can also undermine staff performance when the subtle communication from the manager tells them the opposite. ese cues are oen subtle and examples include when a supervisor fails to praise a staff person’s performance as frequently as they praise others or when a supervisor talks less to a particular employee than to others. Principles for People Development Success in developing others is how well you accomplish each of the following:

• Value People: Concerns attitude • Commit to People: Concerns time • Integrity with People: Concerns character • Standard for People: Concerns vision • Influence over People: Concerns leadership

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Successful People Developers are those who:

• Make the right assumptions about people • Ask the right questions of people • Give the right assistance to people

What you believe about yourself influences what you believe about your people. We are measured not by what we are, but by the perception of what we seem to be; not by what we say, but how we are heard; and not by what we do, but how we appear to do it.

Positive Pygmalion Characteristics

• Belief in themselves and confidence in what they are doing.

• Belief in their ability to develop the talents of their employees: to select, train, and motivate them.

• Ability to communicate to workers that their expectations are realistic and achievable.

• Belief that workers can learn to make decisions and to take the initiative.

• Preference for the rewards that come from the success and increased skills of their subordinates over the rewards they get from supervisors.

Everything Rises and Falls on Leadership • Personnel determine the organization’s potential. • Relationships determine the organization’s morale.

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• Structure determines the organization’s size. • Vision determines the organization’s direction. • Leadership determines the organization’ success.

The 14 Characteristics of Great Leaders

1 Integrity: e qualities of absolute honesty, trustworthiness, uprightness of character, and high moral principles. Integrity can be practiced by doing the following:

• Tell the truth to both superiors and subordinates, all the time.

• Stand for what you believe in, even if the belief is unpopular.

• Use your power to work toward your organization’s goals or for the welfare of your coworkers, not for your own personal gain.

2 Knowledge: You will quickly gain the respect and confidence of your employees by showing them you are knowledgeable about your area of responsibility as well as theirs. Keep in mind that learning is a continual process. To develop and demonstrate knowledge you should:

• Ask questions when unsure.

• Notice and correct substandard performance in others, particularly those who work for you.

• Show your employees, by your actions, how they should perform their duties.

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3 Courage: Courage is the quality that acknowledges fear but allows you to meet danger or opposition calmly and with firmness. Courage is developed when you:

• Place duty and commitment to your organization’s mission over personal feelings and desires.

• Look for and willingly accept responsibilities.

• Stand for what is right, even if it is unpopular.

• Never blame others for your mistakes.

4 Decisiveness: Decisiveness is the ability to weigh all the facts and make timely decisions. To develop decisiveness, you should:

• Get into the habit of considering several points of view for each problem, and then make your best choice.

• Know when not to make a decision.

• Remember that a good decision now is usually better than a perfect decision later.

• Be willing to adjust your decision if you realize it is no longer effective.

5 Dependability: Leaders are dependable when they fulfil their commitments. Dependability is developed by:

• Being on time and prepared.

• Accomplishing your assigned tasks, even if you face obstacles.

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• Building a reputation for keeping your word when you have made a promise.

• Demonstrating loyalty to your friends and supporters.

6 Initiative: Initiative is recognizing what must be done and then doing it without being told to do so. Practice the following to develop initiative:

• Find tasks that need to be done and then do them without being told.

• Look for better ways to do things.

• Consider strategic issues and look for ways to overcome future obstacles.

7 Tact: Tact is the ability to deal with others without causing ill feelings or offense. In order to develop tact, do the following:

• Apply the Golden Rule: Treat others as you would want to be treated.

• Check yourself for tolerance and patience. If you lack these qualities, make efforts to change.

8 Justice: To be just is to be fair. Personal feelings, emotions, and prejudices must not be allowed to influence your decisions. To improve the trait of justice, make sure you practice the following:

• Apply rewards and reprimands to all consistently.

• Listen to all sides of an issue before making a decision.

• Be aware of your counterproductive prejudices and seek to rid yourself of them.

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9 Enthusiasm: Enthusiasm is showing sincere interest and eagerness in performing your job. To develop enthusiasm in others, you should:

• Consistently exhibit a positive attitude toward others. • Emphasize the employee’s successes.

• Encourage others to overcome any obstacles they encounter.

10 Bearing: Your bearing is your general appearance and conduct. Bearing is demonstrated by:

• Controlling your voice and gestures so that emotional extremes do not show in your actions. Sometimes it is appropriate to show some anger, but you never should appear to lose your temper.

• Not reprimanding anyone in the presence of others.

11 Endurance: Maintaining the physical and mental stamina to perform your job under difficult conditions and for long periods of time. Maintain endurance by doing the following:

• Avoid activities that lower your physical and mental stamina.

• Maintain a proper diet and exercise.

• Finish every job, regardless of the obstacles.

12 Unselfishness: You always should give credit where credit is due. To be unselfish, you should:

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• Give credit to employees for jobs well done and ensure that any recognition or praise from higher levels is passed on to deserving individuals.

• You will be surprised at how much respect you will receive from employees when you help them with some of their tasks.

• Make a sincere, honest attempt to look at situations from the other person’s perspective.

13 Loyalty: Loyalty is the quality of faithfulness to your prin- ciples, your country, organization, superiors, and subordinates. To practice loyalty you should:

• Remember loyalty is a two-way street. Be loyal to those above and below you.

• Stand up for your organization and its members when they are unjustly attacked.

• Discuss your problems with those who can help solve the problems. Do not gossip.

14 Judgment: Judgment is the ability to weigh facts logically, to consider possible solutions, and to reach sound decisions. Judgment includes using common sense. To develop the trait of judgment, you:

• Do not yield to impulse. ink about the possible effects of what you are about to do.

• Try to visualize the situation from the other person’s perspective. When in doubt, seek good counsel from those who can best help you.

UNDERSTANDING LEADERSHIP | 31

Leadership, the process of influencing others to obtain desired goals, is based on a set of core values

exemplified in through the behaviors and actions of the leader. Leadership means dealing with the

human dimension of the workplace and starts with oneself and extends to the leader’s team.

In the next chapter, we will explore the team-based skills of successful leaders.

–––––––––––– 1 Adapted from The Pygmalion Effect: Managing the Power of Positive Expectations, Participant’s Workbook. (2001). Carlsbad, CA: CRM Learning, L.P.

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Chapter 2

Teams, Teamwork and Leadership Styles

If you are able to use only one leadership style in a given situation, then you are inflexible and will

have difficulty operating in situations where that style does not fit.

Leadership Styles

All people are shaped by what they have seen, what they have learned, and whom they have met. Who you are determines the way you work with other people. Some people are happy and smiling all the time. Others are serious. Some leaders can wade into a room full of strangers and within five minutes have everyone engaged and thinking, “How have I lived so long without meeting this person?”

Some very competent leaders are uncomfortable in social situations. Most of us are somewhere in between. Although leadership theory describes at great length how you should interact with your subordinates and how you must strive to learn and improve your leadership skills, you always must be yourself. Anything else comes across as fake and insincere.

Effective leaders are flexible enough to adjust their leadership style and techniques to the people they lead and the situations they encounter. Some subordinates respond best to coaxing, suggestions, or gentle prodding. Others need, and sometimes even want, the verbal equivalent of a kick in the pants. Treat- ing people fairly does not mean treating them as if they were clones of one another. In fact, if you treat everyone the same way, you probably are being unfair because different people need different things from you.

ink of it this way: Suppose you must teach safety procedures to a large group of employees ranging in experience from new to very experienced. e senior employees know a great deal about the subject while the new employees know very little. To meet all their needs, you must teach the new employees more than you teach the senior employees.

If you train the new employees only on the advanced skills the senior employees need, the new employees will be lost. If you make the senior employees sit through training on the basic tasks the new employees need, you will waste the senior employee’s time. You must match the training (and your leadership) to the experience of those being trained. In the same way, you must adjust your leadership style and techniques to the experience of your people and characteristics of your organization.

Obviously, you would not lead senior team members the same way you would lead new employees. But the easiest distinc- tions to make are those of rank and experience. You must take into account personalities, self-confidence, self-esteem—all

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the elements of the complex mix of character traits that make dealing with people so difficult and so rewarding. One of the many things that makes your job tough is that you must figure out what your subordinates need and what they are able to do in order to get their best performance even when they do not know themselves.

When discussing leadership styles, many people focus on the extremes, autocratic and democratic. Autocratic leaders tell people what to do with no explanations. eir message is, “I am the boss. You will do it because I said so.” Democratic leaders use their personalities to persuade subordinates.

ere are many shades in between. e following paragraphs discuss five of them. However, bear in mind that competent leaders mix different elements of all these styles according to place, task, and people involved.

Using different leadership styles in different situations or elements of different styles in the same situation is not in- consistent. Rather, the opposite is true. If you are able to use only one leadership style in a given situation, then you are inflexible and will have difficulty operating in situations where that style does not fit.

Directing Leadership Style

e directing style is leader-centered. Leaders using this style do not solicit input from their subordinates. ey give detailed instructions on how, when, and where they want a task performed. ey then closely supervise its execution.

TEAMS, TEAMWORK AND LEADERSHIP STYLES | 35

e directing style may be appropriate when time is short and leaders do not have a chance to explain things. ey may simply give orders: Do this; Go there; Move. Leaders may revert to this style in fast-paced operations or in emergency situations, even with experienced subordinates. But if the leader has created a climate of trust, subordinates will assume the leader has switched to the directing style because of the circumstances.

e directing style is also appropriate when leading inexperi- enced teams or individuals who are not yet trained to operate on their own. In this kind of situation, the leader probably will remain close to the action to make sure things go smoothly.

Some people mistakenly believe the directing style means using abusive and demeaning language, or threatening and intimidating others. is is wrong. If you are ever tempted to act this way, whether due to pressure, stress, or what seems like improper behavior by a subordinate, ask yourself: Would I want to work for someone like me? Would I want my boss to see and hear me treat subordinates this way? Would I want to be treated this way?

Participating Leadership Style

e participating style centers on both the leader and team. Given a job to do, leaders ask subordinates for input, infor- mation, and recommendations, but make the final decision on what to do. is style is especially appropriate for leaders who have time for such consultations or who are dealing with experienced subordinates.

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The delegating style involves giving subordinates the authority to solve problems and make decisions without first clearing them through the leader.

e team-building approach lies behind the participating leadership style. When subordinates help to create a plan it becomes, at least in part, their plan. is ownership creates a strong incentive to invest the effort necessary to make the plan work. Asking for this kind of input is a sign of a leader’s strength and self-confidence. But asking for advice does not mean the leader is obligated to follow it. e leader alone is always responsible for the quality of decisions and the outcome of plans.

Delegating Leadership Style

e delegating style involves giving subordinates the authority to solve problems and make decisions without first clearing them through the leader. Leaders with mature and experienced subordinates, or who want to create a learning experience for subordinates, oen need only to give them authority to make decisions along with the necessary resources and a clear understanding of the mission’s purpose. As always, the leader is responsible for what does or does not happen, but in the delegating leadership style, the leader holds subordinate leaders accountable for their actions. is is the style most oen used by managers dealing with senior supervisors, and by organizational and strategic leaders.

TEAMS, TEAMWORK AND LEADERSHIP STYLES | 37

Transformational and Transactional Leadership Styles

ere is a distinction between the transformational leadership style, which focuses on inspiration and change, and the transactional leadership style, which focuses on rewards and punishments. We do not deny that rewards and punishments are effective and sometimes necessary. However, carrots and sticks alone do not inspire individuals to excel.

Transformational Leadership Style

is style transforms subordinates by challenging them to rise above their immediate needs and self-interest. e transfor- mational style is developmental. It emphasizes individual growth (both professional and personal) and organizational enhancement. Key features of the transformational style include empowering and mentally stimulating subordinates.

The transformational leaders consider and motivate team members as individuals first, then the group. To use the transformational style, you must have the courage to commu- nicate your intent and then step back and let your subordinates work. You must also be aware that immediate benefits oen are delayed until the job or task is accomplished.

e transformational style allows you to take advantage of the skills and knowledge of experienced subordinates who may have better ideas on how to accomplish a mission. Leaders who use this style communicate reasons for their decisions or actions, and build a broader understanding and ability to exercise initiative, and operate effectively with subordinates.

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Not all situations lend themselves to this style. It is most effective during periods that call for change or when presenting new opportunities. It also works well when organizations face a crisis, instability, mediocrity, or disenchantment. It may not be effective when subordinates are inexperienced, when the mission allows little deviation from accepted procedures, or when subordinates are not motivated. Leaders who use only the transformational leadership style limit their ability to influence individuals in these and similar situations.

Transactional Leadership Style

In contrast, some leaders employ only the transactional leadership style. is style includes such techniques as:

• Motivating subordinates to work by offering rewards or threatening punishment.

• Prescribing task assignments in writing.

• Outlining all the conditions necessary to complete the task, including the applicable rules and regulations, the benefits of success, and the consequences, which include possible disciplinary actions or failure.

• Management by exception, where leaders focus on their subordinates’ failures, showing up only when something goes wrong.

e leader who relies exclusively on the transactional style, rather than combining it with the transformational style, evokes only short-term commitment from subordinates and discourages risk taking and innovation.

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ere are situations where the transactional style is acceptable, if not preferred. For example, a leader who wants to emphasize safety could reward the organization, if the organization prevents any serious safety-related incidents for a two-month period. In this case, the leader’s intent appears clear. Safe habits are rewarded, but unsafe acts will not be tolerated.

However, using only the transactional style can make the leader’s efforts appear self-serving. In this example, employees might interpret the leader’s attempt to reward safe practices as an effort to look good by focusing on something that is unimportant but has the boss’s attention. Such perceptions can destroy the trust subordinates have in the leader. Using the transactional style alone also can deprive subordinates of opportunities to grow, because it leaves no room for honest mistakes.

The most effective leaders combine techniques from the transformational and transactional leadership styles to fit the situation. A strong base of transactional understanding, supplemented by charisma, inspiration, and individualized concern for each subordinate, produces the most enthusiastic and genuine response. Subordinates will be more committed, creative, and innovative. ey also will be more likely to take calculated risks to accomplish their mission.

Leaders can avoid any misunderstanding of their intent by combining transformational and transactional techniques. ey can explain why safety is important (intellectual stimulation) while, at the same time, encourage their subordinates to take care of each other (individualized concern).

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Leading Teams

Few leadership roles are as important in empowered organiza- tions as team building. Effective teamwork is the foundation of productivity. In this chapter we will explore several important topics concerning team leadership. For the purposes of clarification, when we refer to “team” in team leadership, we mean your day-to-day work team and/or any special project teams that you might be in charge of temporarily.

To get you started, the following are some suggestions for building effective teams. ese concepts will be discussed in more detail throughout this section.

• Allow time for introductions. When the team is formed, allow people to get to know one another, and to clarify roles and goals.

• Show respect for everyone’s points of view at the earliest point possible. Try to discourage dominant behaviors by some team members. Research shows that the earliest moments of a team’s life define how its members will interact thereaer.

• Establish clear communication channels. Model good listening behavior and encourage it in others. Determine how team members will communicate, how problems will be analyzed, how decisions will be made, and how the team’s work will get done.

• Encourage balanced participation early on. To discourage sub-teams from forming, ensure balanced participation and move people around so they interact with everyone else.

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• Constructively manage conflict and team difficulties. Do this as soon as the conflicts occur. Never allow a problem to fester.

• Avoid imposing your own ground rules and processes. Instead, let the team decide collectively on its rules for conduct, meetings, and reaching consensus. Research shows that teams that make their own process decisions come together more quickly and are more productive.

As a supervisor, you will be in charge of a team of employees. Your team may include your regular work team or it may also include a special project team created for a short-term purpose. Whether it is your work team or a project team, there are several fundamental principles of team leadership.

A team is a number of persons associated together in work or activity working toward a common goal. A team can either be made of members selected by a team leader or the team leader may be assigned to an existing team.

e first step towards ensuring a team’s success is to look at the abilities, experiences, strengths, and weaknesses of each potential team member. Interview team members to see what types of tasks they have been assigned in the past and then ask for results associated with each task.

Next, look at your own strengths and weaknesses to see how they align with those of your team. Look at the overall project, goals, deliverables, and/or strategies. Finally, select and assign

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team members based on each member’s abilities and according to project requirements, not necessarily on their preferences.

Be a visionary! See beyond the project’s endpoint. Tell your team the program goals and objectives, the important mile- stones involved, and the requirements for the deliverables. Discuss and debate the strategies and metrics for meeting the team’s goals/objectives with the team members. Delegate tasks to the team members most qualified to handle them. Rely on them to teach others these tasks. Most importantly, trust your team, being careful not to micromanage them nor to being too hands-off. Be there for them when they need your help.

Empower your team members! Have an “open door” policy and allow your team members to make decisions and mistakes without fear of retaliation. Praise them when they do well and counsel them when they make mistakes or do wrong. Share the credit, take the blame. By empowering your team members, they will help you with future endeavors.

Stages in Team Development 2

Forming. is beginning stage could last a few days or go on for weeks. People think about their new tasks and new environ- ment. Members learn about each other, and plan their work and their new roles around these new relationships. Emotions are positive. The work team should also learn about team processes in preparation for rough times ahead. ey need to learn the rudiments of conflict resolution, communication, time management, and group decision-making.

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Storming. e anticipation and enthusiasm of the forming stage quickly fall away as the team faces a myriad of technical, interpersonal, and social problems. They fight and argue. People feel frustration, resentment, and anger as problems fester and work goes undone. Leaders also experience frustration and are tempted to intervene.

Members are on an emotional roller coaster from elation to depression and back again. Without training and support, the team may not progress. Conflict has a bad reputation. But, conflict is normal, natural, and sometimes even necessary. Handled well, conflict can be used to build skills and confidence as the team transitions to the Norming Stage.

Norming. Here, team members work through individual and social issues. ey establish their own norms of behavior and begin to trust each other. As the team develops interpersonal skills, it also hones other skills. Members begin to leverage the strengths of each other for the good of the team. They become increasingly adept at problem solving, learning new skills and cross training each other.

Performing. Now things begin to click. Members help each other, conflict is depersonalized, problems are solved, and goals are achieved and exceeded. Satisfaction and pride become dominant emotions. e team takes pride in its work, in its accomplishments, and in its team interaction. Individuals take pride in their membership.

Adjourning. Some teams have an end, and there can be disappointment and sadness when a team is done and no

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longer working together. e loss is real and members should be given time to adjust to their new roles, whether it is an individual one or a new team role.

Team Leadership

A manager is a person who conducts business or a person who directs a team. To manage is to exercise executive, administrative, and supervisory direction; to work upon or try to alter for a purpose and to succeed in accomplishing. Managing is the process of organizing people and tasks to accomplish some purpose.

A leader, however, is a person who leads, or a person who has commanding authority or influence. To lead is to guide in a way especially by going in advance; to guide someone or something along the way. A leader is someone who blazes a trail and takes others along for the ride in order to further a cause.

When you manage, you complete projects and programs by organizing people and tasks in a logical order. Leading means creating a path for others in order to accomplish a greater objective. People lead in order to create a legacy that will be maintained by others for the long run.

You need the qualities of both a manager and leader in order to accomplish your projects and programs, and to create a plan for the viability of your organization (develop short-term and a long-range plans). In short, the aim of management is to accomplish tasks, projects, and programs effectively, while leadership aims to help others achieve their personal best.

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Learning to Lead

Focus on quality by:

• Setting performance standards

• Outlining realistic goals

• Striving to ensure the highest quality with all objectives

• Maintaining a checklist of your duties and performance of duties

When leading your team, you should: • Develop strengths — self-confidence and self-determination

• Set high goals

• Eliminate weaknesses — face up to your own mistakes • Prepare to lead — understand your team members

• Be a strategist

Examine the process — involve everyone in decision making. Conduct a detailed analysis to determine background infor- mation. Plan effectively for the team and then implement your plans, both for short and long terms.

To better assess your team and mission, consider a SWOT analysis:

• Strengths: What are your competencies? What do you do well?

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• Weaknesses: What are your shortfalls and competi- tive disadvantages? What can you improve on?

• Opportunities: What is out there that you can take advantage of?

• Threats: What areas are deteriorating? What do you need to be aware of?

Communication

Recognize barriers. People do not always think or hear alike. To achieve clarity with your communications, you should:

• Be clear in your own mind about what you want to communicate?

• Deliver the message clearly using the right media.

• Ensure the message has been clearly and correctly understood as intended.

Principles for People Development

Success in developing others will depend on how well you accomplish each of the following:

• Value of People: Your attitude about others

• Commitment to People: How much time will you give them?

• Integrity with People: Character, or how you treat them

• Standard of People: Vision, or how you see them

• Influence over People: How you lead them

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By observing and drawing on the experiences of leaders successful in people development, we learn there are three main areas where they differ from those who are not. Successful people developers make the right assumptions about people, ask the right questions, and give the right assistance when needed.

When determining standards for your team, you should:

• Involve employees in developing standards and/or goals and timetables.

• Provide personal examples of topnotch performance- based work on which standards can be developed.

• Upgrade performance standards whenever there is a need and an opportunity.

• Make standards measurable so you can determine successful outcomes.

Measures and objectives are important to help your team chart its direction. ey tell the team what it is supposed to be doing. Measures and objectives are necessary to:

• Monitor and evaluate the use of company resources and the level of controllable costs.

• Establish measurable and realistic work targets and deadlines.

• Monitor performance for any discrepancies that need to be addressed.

• Establish procedures and rules that employees are expected to follow.

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• Drive interest in progress toward longer-term objectives or goals.

Performance Feedback

Performance feedback is critical to tell your team members how they are doing. Specifically, performance feedback:

• Tells people how they are doing on a day-by-day basis as well as over extended periods of time.

• Is important for coaching and training employees on how to improve performance.

• Is used to determine if goals and objectives are being met.

• Allows employees the opportunity to change their performance.

Performance feedback is an essential element of the supervisor/ subordinate relationship. The vast majority of people want to make a difference in their place of work. They want to be recognized for their accomplishments and learn how to become even better. ey want to know where they stand. People crave feedback that is honest, positive, objective, timely, and fair. But performance feedback is rare.

ere are three main obstacles to giving effective feedback in today’s leadership environment. The first is the pace of operations. Supervisors oen say they are so busy that they do not have the time to devote to giving feedback properly.

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e second has to do with working relationships in today’s business environment. e good news is that more and more supervisors are taking the time to get to know their subordinates and their families. ey say their “door is always open.” e downside of this is that this type of working relationship can make it hard for supervisors to tell their subordinates that they aren’t doing their job well and they could be more effective.

The third obstacle lies in the willingness and readiness of the subordinate to receive feedback. Subordinates might have trouble recognizing there are areas in which they can improve. They might be defensive or concerned for their jobs. There might be personality differences or other issues between the supervisor and subordinates that interfere with communication.

Effective supervisors must be aware of all the dynamics of the relationship and make appropriate adjustments in their approach to feedback.

A formal feedback process has important advantages for supervisors. It motivates subordinates and helps them become more effective. By establishing dialogue with subordinates, supervisors can better understand their individual wants and needs, and the climate of the organization. In organizations where retaining quality people is a high priority, an effective performance feedback system is essential.

In order for performance feedback to be effective, it must follow these key principles:

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Specific: Feedback must be based on observable behavior, not on people’s feelings or the conclusions drawn from their behavior. For example, “Last Friday morning I saw you help Mary fix a problem on her computer. Your willingness to share your expertise is a great example of teamwork and makes this a more effective organization.” This specific example, tied to a positive organizational outcome, is more effective than saying “You are a helpful person,” since the subordinate can link the feedback to an actual event.

Timely: Feedback should be given in a timely manner so that both parties can recall the specific behavior involved.

Actionable: Feedback should be based on something over which a person has control. When necessary, the supervisor should identify ways to improve performance.

Measurable: Goals and objectives should be stated in terms where both parties will know if the goals are achieved.

Achievable: Performance measures should be realistic and within the resources that are available to the subordinate.

Positive: Give both positive and critical feedback, but tip the balance in the positive direction. e Center for Creative Leadership suggests a 4:1 ratio of positive to critical feedback.

When new employees come on board, the supervisor should meet with them as soon after their arrival as possible.

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Non-evaluative: Opinions, perceptions, and reactions should be differentiated from facts. Don’t psychoanalyze; avoid inferences and interpretations. Avoid labels.

Establish a dialogue: e effective feedback session is not a one-way communication. The supervisor should ask the subordinate if they fully understand what is being said and then listen carefully to the response. e supervisor should ensure the subordinate understands their role in the organization and how it contributes to the goals and mission.

When new employees come on board, the supervisor should meet with them as soon aer their arrival as possible. e purpose of this initial feedback session is to help establish the relationship between the supervisor and employee. It is also about setting expectations for the upcoming evaluation period. It is not necessary to negotiate objectives with the subordinate, but the supervisor should help the subordinate take ownership of the goals and internalize expectations. Both parties should leave the initial feedback session with a clear understanding of what is expected. e supervisor provides a written record of the feedback session. is written record is held in confidence.

Supervisors often are required to conduct a follow-up feedback session midway through the evaluation period. is session should be conducted using the principles above and should address the extent to which the expectations were met. As before, a confidential written record is provided.

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e annual performance appraisal system is not a substitute for good communication or for timely, routine feedback. For example, if the subordinate is consistently late for routine meetings, it makes no sense to wait until the annual appraisal cycle to make them aware of the problem. In the same way, workers who consistently perform above standards should not have to wait months to know that their work is appreciated. Supervisors should not assume that, because certain behaviors are obvious to them, they are equally obvious to the subordinate. Daily or routine feedback needs to remain consistent with the principles above.

Annual performance discussions should have no surprises for the employee. e evaluation should summarize the positive and critical feedback given to the employee during specified time periods.

Finally, supervisors who routinely give feedback (both positive and corrective) to subordinates may want to follow up with a personal note or memo. It is possible that the feedback is so routine (or the subordinate so unreceptive) that the subordi- nate misses the message or doesn’t even realize that feedback has taken place.

Giving feedback is a key responsibility of a leader. Work climate surveys strongly suggest that job satisfaction, morale, and retention are closely related to the ability of a leader to provide feedback. Senior leaders must set the example for the organization by giving timely feedback and demanding that leaders at all levels do the same.

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The 6 C’s of Teamwork

Competence

• Develops and meets standards

• Continuously improves effectiveness through training

• Successfully carries out assignments

• Works together productively

• Strives to increase the level of knowledge concerning individuals, departments, and company issues

Candor

• Honest with each other, encouraging others to speak freely

• Actively listens to the opinions of others with an open mind

• Seeks new ideas and challenges old ones

• Confronts problems and controversial issues assertively

Consensus

• Uses facts to support strong opinions

• Develops innovative solutions together

• Uses a win-win approach to conflict

• Develops excellent solutions and supports final decisions

• Strives for total agreement on important issues

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Critique

• Candid, but sensitive to others

• Uses examples and facts as a basis for drawing conclusions

• Focuses on improvements

• Evaluates processes during and aer projects

Cooperation

• Believes we are all in this together

• Involves all members fully

• Shares ideas and information willingly

• Sets challenging goals

Commitment

• Sets rules and then follows them

• Holds self and others accountable

• Seeks team success over individual success

• Commits to following the 6 C’s

Seven Keys to Team Leadership

1. Help the team identify its purpose. People work more effectively when they understand the goals they are trying to achieve. As a leader, it is your job to help the team members see the desired outcome of their efforts, and help them set specific goals and milestones along the way.

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2. Set the scope and boundaries. Teams need to know what they should tackle and what is too big or not their responsi- bility. By helping teams manage the scope of their work you will keep them more focused and on target to reach the goals more quickly.

3. Show, through both your words and actions, that you believe in them. If you do not believe in the team concept, you will not effectively lead teams. If you do believe both in the concept and in a particular team’s potential, you need to let them know that. Show through both your words and actions that you believe in them. Once they have purpose and goals and your belief in them, they are on their way to success.

4. Define your role. Your role is to lead, not to do the work or make all of the decisions. Tell team members what your role is and isn’t. Help them see how you are relying on their experience, knowledge and intellect in the completion of the team’s work.

5. Be a supporter. Support the team with your actions. Do not just delegate the work to the team and then wipe your hands of any further responsibility. Teams will experience obstacles and roadblocks. It is your job to remove those road- blocks, find additional resources, and provide support. It is like a hike. If you are in front of a group on a hike, you will do your best to remove impediments that might slow down or injure those that follow. Your role on a business team is just the same.

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6. Be a facilitator. Help the team succeed. Provide guidance when needed. Remain hands off as much as you can. Let the team succeed and develop itself toward greater achievement at the same time. To facilitate means “to make easier,” and that is your role. Remember that you chose to use a team to accomplish the task, so let it achieve that goal.

7. Be careful about what you say. Teams oen look to leaders to make the final decisions or assume that the leader has veto power on any decision in the end. If you really support the team approach, and are genuine in wanting and needing its input, you need to sit back and let team members speak. If you are always the first person to talk on a subject, you will slowly stifle their willingness to participate. Team members will subconsciously assume that your word is golden— whether they agree or not. Because of your position, you must abstain from the early part of a dialogue on issues and share your thoughts near the end of the conversation.

–––––––––––– 2 Adapted from Bruce uckman’s 1965 model of Forming, Storming, Norming, and Performing.

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5 |

Chapter 3

Conflict in the Workplace

It is always best to confront difficulties at the lowest level in the organization.

Dealing with Team Conflict

e team concept creates an environment where conflict is bound to happen. Few people are trained to deal with conflict, or have difficulty making discussions with peers or subordi- nates, and they don’t enjoy it. However, as a supervisor, it is essential for you to learn how to handle conflict as it is part of the responsibility of your position. With the right tools, you too, can learn how to handle these discussions effectively.

Understanding how conflict happens at work can be helpful for anticipating and fending off situations that may become hostile. While it may seem that conflict can erupt over the slightest of issues in the workplace, the following are the typical reasons why it occurs.

1. Incompatible goals between individuals or groups of individuals can be created. For example, imagine a head bank teller telling a subordinate that rapid service is an absolute must from now on—while at the same time, the community relation's director instructs all employees to focus their efforts upon quality customer contact. One

can imagine how quickly problems could arise between the teller and the head teller if speed is sacrificed for quality time with the customer.

2. A second source of conflict has to do with our personal values. For example, it does not take long for employees who enjoy going to happy hour aer work to begin distancing themselves from those who want to go home to their families at night. Such distancing oen is accompanied by gossiping, suspicion, distrust, and ultimately conflict.

3. e extent to which we depend upon others to complete our work is a third contributing factor. Certainly conflict would be rare if your task was simply to copy a report on your own copy machine and then file it. However, if you are being pressured to run a report for the records department and must wait for your turn to use the company copier while the person in front of you spends more time talking than copying, frustration could mount and conflict may follow.

4. Lack of resources is another source of conflict. Whether it’s people, time, money, or things, when we do not have what we need to meet current job demands, frustration begins to mount. Ask yourself what happened the last time you were unable to gain access to something you needed at work. Perhaps you lost patience.

5. e power distribution at work can be a fih source of conflict. We all have known people who seem to wield their power inappropriately. Individuals sometimes

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inadvertently step on other people’s toes as they try to complete their own tasks. In addition, there are times when individuals or departments may be viewed as providing a more valuable service to the organization than do others. In such cases, resentment oen arises, laying the foundation for conflict.

6. Changes to company policies and procedures also may cause conflict. Some organizations seem notorious for continually changing their policies. Others seem to have no policies at all, or administer them so infrequently that they seem almost non-existent. Examples include regular office meetings becoming irregular or being told that you are violating a policy that you thought you were abiding by a week ago, such as the way you dress. In any case, the absence of clear policies, or policies that are continu- ally changing, creates an environment of uncertainty and subjective interpretation that makes one feel vulnerable and helpless.

Confronting Difficult Situations with People

It is always best to confront difficulties at the lowest level in the organization. For example, if you have a conflict with your peers, prepare your case and go talk to them one on one to see if you can resolve the conflict.

As a supervisor, if an employee comes to you with concerns about a co-worker, the first question you should ask is, “Have you spoken to this person yourself about the issue?” If the

CONFLICT IN THE WORKPLACE | 61

answer is no, then ask why not. ey may need some help in knowing how to approach their peer in a manner that does not make the matter worse. Avoidance is a common tactic that many use in the workplace. e thought is that it will work itself out. While this may appear to be the simple solution, it is rarely the correct one.

When a conflict at work requires you to confront an individual, the most effective way is to use what is known as an “assertive” approach. Being assertive does not necessarily mean exerting power and being mean, but it does require effort and practice, and most find it to be extremely helpful in addressing their needs. Here are some points you may find helpful to learn and practice before you have to confront an individual:

1. ink about what it is you want to address. What is really bugging you?

2. Set a time to talk with the individual.

3. Deal with only one topic at a time.

4. Be brief and specific.

5. Do not attack the person. Rather, address a specific behavior that the person can recognize and work toward changing (e.g. “I would like you to arrive to work on time,” rather than, “I would like you to be more conscientious.”)

6. Ask for and listen to their point of view.

In the end, avoiding conflict is easier than confronting it. However, this approach does very little to satisfy your desire

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to make your workplace a productive and pleasant environment. By better understanding how conflict and anger arise and by practicing how to handle it assertively when it does occur, you can make conflict far less intimidating, and it can actually become an aspect of work you can learn to manage rather than let it manage you.

What to do when conflict happens 3

Sometimes the issue evokes strong emotions in you or others. When this happens, the C.A.L.M. model can be a great tool to prepare yourself for confronting another person.

Clarify the Issue Address the Problem Listen to the Other Side Manage Your Way to Resolution

We start with Clarifying the Issue. Ask yourself these questions to get a clear understanding of what the issue really is.

Primary Questions

1. What am I upset about? In specific behavioral terms, what actually happened? Who else is involved? What did they do?

2. What emotions am I feeling: anger, hurt, frustration? Why am I feeling this way?

3. Have I contributed to the problem?

4. Am I just over-reacting? If so, why?

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5. In terms of actions and relationships, what do I desire as an outcome to this conflict? What will successful resolution look like?

6. If I were the other person involved in this situation, how would I want to be approached and dealt with?

Secondary Questions

1. Where may the other person have been coming from? How might they have been motivated by good intentions?

2. Has this happened before? Is this a first-time occurrence?

3. How is this situation affecting me and my work? Are others affected? If so, how?

4. When dealing with this issue, what can I do to increase my chances of getting the results I want? What counter-productive behaviors do I want to avoid?

Address the Problem: How you open the meeting can be critical. Try to meet in a neutral setting and keep it comfortable for all involved. e tone of voice should be non-accusatory and should tell the person you are open for discussion.

e Opening:

I need your help to solve a problem I am facing.

Define the Issue (let them know):

Exactly what happened? How it made you feel.

e negative impacts the situation has caused.

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Other ings to Remember:

Have a walk-in strategy. You may want to practice what you plan to say.

Do not repeat what co-workers have said. is is between the two of you.

Keep the end in mind. e goal is not to win an argument. e goal is to reach a respectful, collaborative result.

Listen to the Other Side: Once you have shared your view, open the discussion and ask for their view. By listening atten- tively, and without judgment, finding a solution may be easier than you think.

1. Give the other person your total attention.

2. Never interrupt.

3. Ask questions for clarification.

4. Paraphrase what you have heard.

5. Show that you are listening; look them in the eye.

6. Use positive body language.

Manage Your Way to Resolution: When others have shared their view, it is now time to work toward a solution. Do not be too eager to tell them what the solution is or it will make them feel like you have not listened to their viewpoint. Use these tips to find a mutual agreement.

1. Gain an agreement that a problem exists.

CONFLICT IN THE WORKPLACE | 65

2. Identify each other’s concerns and needs.

3. Explore win-win solutions.

4. Agree on a course of action.

5. Determine how to handle missteps, should they happen.

6. Close on a positive note.

Managing Team Conflict

It is commonplace for organizations to work in teams. Whether they’re leader-driven or self-directed teams, the hope is that productivity, creativity, and results will be greater in a team environment. While this is a proven approach, any time you bring people together from differing backgrounds and experiences, it is inevitable that conflict will occur.

Many people and organizations view conflict as a negative, something to be avoided. Yet conflict, differences in opinions, and disagreements are a natural result of people working together. Without conflict, teams can become complacent and not perform at optimum levels. The challenge then becomes how the team should prepare itself for this stage of its existence, and how the team leader should facilitate the team through it.

Conflict arises from a clash of perceptions, goals, or values in an arena where people care about the outcome. If not managed correctly, it can totally disrupt the entire group process. However, the old saying, “at which does not kill us will only

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make us stronger” illustrates how successfully managed conflict can benefit the group.

The best approach to preventing unnecessary conflict is by establishing operating standards and objectives that team members can buy into and support. en by enforcing your team rules consistently and fairly, you generally can avoid negative conflict.

e first steps in resolving team conflicts are based on an analysis of the team dynamics. is may sound complex and time consuming, but it is a simple process because it is based on assessing the personality types involved. In contrast to overall personality typing, like Myers Briggs, this focuses on the interaction styles of individuals and how they relate. ese styles are accentuated when there is a conflict or a difference in opinions about goals, directions, and plans.

People can be divided into different categories in many ways. When interacting with others, there are varying degrees of extroversion and introversion, aggressiveness, collaboration and competitiveness, and possessiveness. Some people shrink away from conflict and competitiveness. Some are aggressive and see everything as a clash of wills. Some readily compro- mise by trying to blend their own views and aims with those of others, while others simply accept things as they are and have no opinion either way on a matter. In essence, the de- grees of give and take, and the feelings of togetherness versus individuality typically dominate team dynamics.

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Regardless of which approach is used, teams can surmount many differences and avoid conflict if they define common goals and values in the early stages. Goals may seem self- ev- ident, but the motivations that determine the success or fail- ure of these goals are as unique as the individuals themselves.

e overall goal may be to develop a new product, design a new piece of equipment, or create a new report. But the rele- vance of each task is interpreted differently by each person according to their attitudes and perceptions about it. e team can shape plans, set schedules, enact various ways of doing things, and decide upon how the work is reported and recog- nized so that each person’s individual needs and preferences are met.

For example, if a person is individualistic and competitive, then that person’s work assignments can be structured as standalone sub-projects completed by him or her, requiring minimal input from others. is allows them to participate as individuals while still being recognized as contributing to the overall team effort. For others, team involvement may be important. Individuals desiring this type of work environment simply thrive better when working in a group. Tasks and efforts are shared in circumstances such as these and responsibility then falls on the shoulders of several individuals instead of a sole member.

Regardless of whether dealing with individuals or with groups, the key thing for a leader to remember when interpersonal conflict does arise is that an open line of communication is

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usually the best defense toward finding a workable solution. This means creating a safe-zone where employees can voice their opinions and concerns freely and openly with no fear of retaliation.

Creating a safe-zone requires a leader to assume the role of a facilitator, or that of a neutral party whose responsibility is to demand mutual respect among team members throughout the resolution process. While you can still encourage, support, and clarify, your most important function in this role is to ensure that team rules and codes of conduct are enforced, both fairly and consistently.

Constructive conflicts exist when:

1. People change and grow personally from the conflict.

2. e conflict results in a solution to a problem.

3. Everyone’s involvement increases as a result of the conflict.

4. It builds cohesiveness among the members of the team.

Destructive conflicts exist when:

1. No decision is reached and the problem still exists.

2. It diverts energy away from more value-added activities.

3. It destroys the morale of team members.

4. It polarizes or divides the team.

Role of Team Leader in Managing Conflict

Organizations and relationships typically fail to mature when conflict is le unresolved. Clearly then, the goal of any leader

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or manager should be to find a solution equitable to everyone involved. So, leaders must remain impartial and facilitate understanding among the group members.

Preventative Strategies

One of the most effective ways to prevent conflict is establish- ing a good set of ground rules that the team can refer back to for guidance should conflict arise. In addition to outlining processes or behaviors that the group will either allow or prohibit, ground rules also can be used as a way to remove leaders from the role of enforcer.

Another successful technique is for the team to come to agreement on how conflict will be resolved when it occurs. is could include simply reaching a decision by consensus. Most importantly, having a well-defined policy on how conflict will be handled forces the team to focus on behaviors that contribute to it, rather than hamper conflict-resolution efforts.

Training in conflict resolution or communication skills would be invaluable to a team. It would be preferable and most effective if the team could attend this training as a group.

Reactive Strategies

Acting: Exercising an authoritarian approach. Simply tell the group what the resolution will be. is resolves the issue quickly and without discussion. is strategy is best used in emergency situations or when emotions are high and issues will require unpopular decisions. ink through any expected

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negative fallout ahead of time and have a contingency plan in place. Tell people assertively what it is that you are going to do. Do not hesitate or waffle, as this will only add to the confusion.

Adjusting: Splitting differences, exchanging concessions, or giving and taking to reach a middle ground. Good when a quick, temporary solution is needed for a complex issue. It merges different opinions or perspectives quickly. Oen a third party mediator is called in to help determine the requirements of all parties. End the mediation by summarizing, gaining commitments, and setting up future checkpoints in the plan.

Accommodating: Sacrificing self-concerns when yielding to another person. Most valuable when one person is more vested in the outcome, when someone is wrong or has made a bad decision, or simply when they have more to gain at a later date. Using this approach requires someone to admit their mistake and then be willing to work toward resolving the matter. Emotions need to be taken out of the picture and there must be discussion as to why one person’s giving in is the right thing to do. en thank them for their willingness to work things out.

Avoiding: Withdrawing, sidestepping or postponing the issue. Most effective when the issue is of low importance or the conflict is a symptom of bigger issues, when you have no decision-making authority, or when the issue will resolve itself over time. If using the final approach, make sure you explain why nothing is being done or when you do expect to tackle the issue.

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Step-by-Step Process

1. Set expectations. Let all parties know up front that the goal is to resolve the conflict.

2. Make sure all parties want to resolve it.

3. Do not allow for any finger pointing. Let them know there will be no winners or losers. ey are all in this together.

4. Clearly identity the reasons for the conflict.

5. Brainstorm solutions that benefit all parties.

6. Get consensus from all parties on the chosen solution.

7. Implement the consented solution.

8. Monitor and evaluate the success/failure of the solution.

9. If successfully resolved — celebrate! If not, go back to step #7.

10. Follow up and follow through on any additional requirements.

Resolving Conflict Constructively

Not all conflict and tension is bad. When managed construc- tively, disagreements can lead to new ideas, products and best practices, and new ways to do things. Here are seven steps to ensure that conflict is managed constructively:

1. Deflect aggression

• If the other person is emotional or hostile, remain centered and ignore personal attacks. If that does not

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work, simply remove that person or yourself from the situation and go through a cooling-off period.

• If others are in conflict, try to calm them down. Again, if that does not work, remove them from the situation while they cool down.

• Focus on the issues, not the people.

2. Explore the issues

• Probe to understand each person’s point of view.

• Clarify everyone’s assumption.

• Verify facts and, if needed, gather more information.

3. Listen

• Give full attention to the person speaking.

• Paraphrase the other person’s point of view.

• Summarize periodically.

• Be patient, encouraging the other person to continue until they are finished.

• Try to understand how the other person feels.

4. Acknowledge

• Recognize the other person by name.

• Show that you understand and accept the other person’s perspective. You do not have to agree with it, but show your awareness.

• Validate the differences.

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5. Solve the problem

• Define the problem.

• Clarify the issues and goals.

• Find and evaluate alternatives.

• Determine solution criteria.

• Apply the criteria and build consensus.

6. Negotiate

• If problem solving fails, try to negotiate.

• Find acceptable tradeoffs.

• Determine the impact of tradeoffs on each party.

• Compromise. If that is not possible, submit to arbitration.

7. Assert

• When all else fails, be assertive.

• State your position.

• Express your needs.

• If necessary, agree to disagree.

Resolving Disagreements

Disagreements among team members may not develop into major conflict but still can be disruptive. Here are some suggestions for resolving disagreements:

• Know what is at stake for each person. Ensure that the disagreement is over issues that can be discussed rationally.

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• Agree on the issues. Make sure everyone is talking about the same thing.

• Examine assumptions. Other points of view sometimes seem unreasonable because of false assumptions.

• Determine the source of disagreement. Have they interpreted the facts differently? Is there a deeper conflict of values?

• Gather more evidence. Focus on outcomes.

• Have them paraphrase each other’s position. is is an excellent technique. Have each person paraphrase the other’s position before stating their own.

• Suggest that individuals focus on perceptions and share theirs. An opposing position may be less threatening, and certain individuals may find it easier to empathize when it is stated in terms of perceptions: I perceive that …

Encourage mutual acceptance. If all else fails, suggest that they validate each other’s perspective and agree to disagree.

Expect Conflict

You will be exposed to conflict. It is a natural part of life. Whether or not the conflict involves you does not matter. How you handle the conflict will determine your success as a leader.

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Complaint Procedures

• Management-designed series of steps for handling employee complaints

• Usually explained in employee handbook or policies • Usually provides for a number of appeals before a final decision.

–––––––––––– 3 Adapted from What To Do When Conflict Happens, Participant Workbook (2007). Carlsbad, CA: CRM Learning, L.P.

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Chapter 4

Recruiting and Selecting Your Team

e hiring process should be set to the same rigorous standards as those used when making any

other strategic decision.

Hiring for Attitude

e hiring patterns you establish today will determine the kind of culture, service standards, and reputation you will have tomorrow.

is is undeniable: You cannot build a great company without great people. How many companies are as rigorous about hiring or as comfortable evaluating job candidates as they are about deciding on an investment proposal or deciding which contractor company to hire? e all-too-common reality is that hiring processes are poorly designed and executed.

Of course, making the commitment to hire great people raises an even more basic question: How do you know them when you see them? In the last few years, a number of companies have asked themselves that question. ey have analyzed what separates their winners from their losers, good hires from bad

hires. ese companies compete in a wide range of industries —from airlines to steel, computers to hotels—but they all arrived at the same answer: What people know is less impor- tant than who they are. Hiring, they believe, is not about finding people with the right experience, but finding people with the right mindset. These companies hire for attitude and train for skill.

The same can be said for promotions and advancement in an organization. All too often, employees are promoted into supervisory positions because they have demonstrated excel- lence in their work or because they have been there for a long time. As supervisors, now they deal with people and their needs instead of simply production needs. Are we really setting these employees up for success if we promote based only on technical competency?

Do not get the wrong idea. Just because we need to look beyond technical skills when hiring does not mean that we need to become amateur psychologists. It simply means that the hiring process should be set to the same rigorous standards as those used when making any other strategic decision.

Hire for Attitude, Train for Skill

Truth #1: Most organizations hire for technical competence and expertise, hoping that the technically gied will bring the right attitude with them.

Truth #2: You will hire people for what they know and what they can do. You most oen will fire people for who they are.

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Truth #3: What people know is less important than who they are. What we know changes very fast in an information-based world. Who we are changes over a long period of time.

Truth #4: Hiring someone with a bad or marginal attitude, but who is technically competent, and then expecting the Training Department to change them is a decision you will pay for over and over again.

Truth #5: When you have fewer people doing more work you cannot afford to make a sloppy hiring decision.

Truth #6: The most admired companies in the world are absolutely rigorous about hiring—it is a strategic priority for them. They know the price they will pay for just filling a position.

e New Model for Smart Hiring

1. What You Know Changes, Who You Are Does Not Popeye (Popeye the “Sailor Man” is an American cartoon fictional character created by Elzie Crisler Segar in 1930s) was right: “I y’am what I y’am.” e most common—and fatal—hiring mistake is to find someone with the right skills but the wrong mindset and hire them on the theory, "We can change ’em.” Forget it. e best predictor of future behavior is past behavior.

2. You Cannot Find What You are Not Looking For ere are several dimensions for success on the job, including practical learning, teamwork, tolerance

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for stress, sales ability, attention to detail, adaptability, flexibility, and motivation, just to name a few. If you are not looking for these traits and skills, you will not find them.

3. You Cannot Hire People Who Do Not Apply Companies that take hiring seriously also take recruiting seriously. Successful companies seldom lack job candidates. e goal is to have the right job candidates, not the most.

Another approach to recruiting builds on the theory that blood is thicker than water. Most companies with advanced hiring systems encourage family members to apply for jobs. e logic is simple. If “who people are” is what matters, who better to hire than people related to your top performers? Another option is to encourage employees to recommend candidates—again our friends, with values similar to ours.

Why Quality Recruiting and Selection Matters

e hiring and selection patterns you establish today will determine the kind of culture, service standards, and reputation you have tomorrow. Will it be a culture you are excited about or one you simply tolerate? Will it be a reputation you are proud of or one for which you are always making excuses?

What you know will change through experience, education, and on-the-job training, but who you are is less likely to

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change as fast. So hiring someone with the hope that you can change their core character and the fundamental values that shape their attitude when they come to work for you is a bad hiring decision. Many marriages fail today for the same reason. We like some things but not everything about our potential spouse, and we hope that when we finally tie the knot we can change them! But we all know how flawed that thinking is (either through our personal experience or by knowing someone who has tried it and failed).

Finally, in a world with limited resources and more work than ever, we cannot afford to make hiring mistakes. There is a finite amount of time in each day. We can either waste part of that time on personnel problems that emanate from bad hiring decisions, or we can get the most out of that time on things that add value for our customers and widen the gap of competitive advantage.

Why is it difficult to hire the best?

Perhaps it is difficult to hire the best because we have not been through the rigorous process of defining what the best looks like. Hiring people with world-class attitudes starts with identifying the people in your own organization who already have the kind of attributes you want. Find the superstars in your company. Ask their customers, employees, peers, and supervisors what makes them so effective, so easy to work with, and so competent. en build a profile of the common denominators that make each superstar successful and hire new people based on those attitudinal profiles.

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Hiring is a pay-me-now or pay-me-later endeavor. If you invest the time up front to critically think through what attitudes, characteristics and values you want, and then hire accordingly, the rewards can be invaluable. If, on the other hand, you are lazy or impatient, the negative consequences can be disastrous. We all know through experience that attitudes are contagious. As you interview people for future positions, ask yourself, “Is theirs worth catching?”

While you are at it, why not ask yourself the same question, “Is my attitude worth catching?” As a leader, you are an ambassador for your organization. You have the power to set the tone for your organization’s success in recruiting, screen- ing, and hiring world-class people with world-class attitudes. What kind of legacy are you building?

Developing a Recruiting and Selection Strategy

In order to be successful, organizations must have the ability to locate, identify, and attract qualified candidates. Recruiting involves much more than placing an employment ad in the paper. An effective recruitment program serves as a foundation for meeting current and future staffing requirements. Incorpo- rating a recruiting strategy that is both systematic and creative provides the innovation and cost effectiveness needed to remain competitive in any business environment.

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e recruiting process involves six key steps:

1. Establish the organization’s recruiting objectives

2. Identify the position requirements and opportunities

3. Evaluate the recruiting climate and response

4. Determine appropriate sources

5. Implement the recruiting campaign

6. Monitor the results

Your Mission, Vision, and Values

You should incorporate your organization’s mission, vision, and values into the selection process. This can be done by including questions during the interview that determine if the candidate is the right person for the job and would be a good fit for your company.

Such questions might include:

• How would you best contribute to our company’s mission of …?

• Tell us about a time when you specifically had to choose the company’s interests over those of your own.

• One of our key values is … what skills or talents do you have that can help us with supporting this value?

e point here is that the person you hire should be able to support your mission, vision, and values. Otherwise, the person will not be a good fit for your company.

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Additionally, you should consider incorporating your values into your performance appraisal process and then rating employees on their performance relative to supporting those values.

Determining Recruiting or Selection Objectives

To determine specific recruiting objectives, start by linking to the organization’s business plan along with evaluating past staffing patterns, current and future hiring needs, and budget restrictions. To arrive at these objectives, consider the following:

Organization’s Business Plan What is the organization’s plan and focus in the next few years? What kind of employees are needed to meet the organization’s needs? If you are selecting team members from an existing pool of employees, what are the team’s objectives and what skills are needed to successfully accomplish those objectives?

Long-Term vs. Short-Term Employment Strategic Plan What are the long-term and short-term needs? Considerations include property acquisitions, downsizing, and expansion.

Position and Team Requirements Position requirements would entail assessing the essential duties and responsibilities of the job, the type and degree of expertise needed, the kind of decision making required, and the amount of time spent performing each function. Cultural fit factors look at how work is accomplished in an organization. For example, the degree of formality and use of set procedures, the pace and amount of change, and the extent of team versus individual work focus are just a few.

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Look for members who focus on logic and data as well as those who look at the impact

decisions will have on people.

e same considerations should be used when selecting team members. In addition, consider the overall skills and abilities of each team member. For a team to be well rounded and perform at its best, look for the strengths each member brings to the table and build upon them. For example, select members who are detail-oriented as well as those who are task-driven.

Look for members who focus on logic and data as well as those who look at the impact decisions will have on people. Good communication, strong listening skills, the ability to work through conflicting points of view, and adaptability are highly prized in all members of the team.

Bad hiring selections oen end up costing organizations a great deal of time and money, and are usually the result of poorly defined or inadequately communicated job requirements. Unrealistic requirements limit the available candidate pool and restrict recruiting efforts. In addition, the amount of training the company will provide for the position is important in deter- mining the level of experience and job knowledge needed for an employee new to the job as opposed to employees who have been in the job for a period of time.

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Reviewing the Resume and Job Application

Reviewing resumes is a critical part of the overall hiring process and is an area where many companies fail to devote enough time. As a result, they either end up with a poor choice or miss a shooting star opportunity.

Resume screening is the process of comparing one candidate’s qualifications to another’s or comparing a candidate’s skills and abilities to the job requirements. Organizations must allocate both time and resources to this. In addition, in this day of electronic applications, resume screening has taken on several new dimensions.

Before the age of electronics, resume screening could be as simple as looking at the design of the document, the quality of the paper used for printing or the size of the envelope it was mailed in. While still useful for mailed resumes, electronic applications have become more of the norm, and with that comes a new set of screening requirements and challenges.

However, there is still one thing that never goes out of style regardless of whether submitted by pen on paper or transmit- ted through electronic gadgetry, and that is proper spelling and grammar. Potential candidates who fail to give adequate attention to details such as these do not warrant the time and effort involved in reviewing their application.

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Steps In Resume Review

1. Resumes should include a cover letter. Review the cover thoroughly before proceeding to the resume. e cover letter tells you a lot about a potential candidate, including why they want to come to work for you, their goals and aspirations, and what they expect from you, if hired. If the resume you are reviewing has no cover letter, it should be a red flag that the applicant made little effort. Depending on the nature of the position you are looking to fill, you will need to decide whether or not to continue reviewing the resume.

2. Scan the resume to obtain an overall impression of the applicant. Look especially for a flawless presentation, correct spelling and grammar, and their attention to detail. Paper resumes must pass the feel test.

3. In the first skim, look for the easy-to-find qualifications. If you are requiring a college degree and they do not have one, reject the resume or place it in your maybe-meets- qualifications pile or electronic folder.

4. Read the section in the cover letter or resume where the candidate tells you what they are looking for in a job. If your job posting stated specific qualifications and the potential candidate stated they are looking for a “challenging environment,” this, again, is a red flag because it shows little effort. is could be an indicator of a poor work ethic.

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5. Look at the applicant’s list of qualifications and experiences to see if they align with the job requirements. Again, if the applicant has taken the time to customize their summary to your needs, you can decide whether or not they have the aptitude and skills you seek.

6. Next, take a look at where the applicant worked in the past. Look for accomplishments and any contributions made while working for previous or current employers. Be aware of anything that specifically relates to the job requirements of the position you are looking to fill. Look for key words that can tie their past experiences to your current needs. Finally, look for any red flag items such as:

• Employment gaps

• Evidence of decreasing responsibility

• Evidence of a career that has reached a plateau or gone backwards

• Short-term employment at several jobs

• Multiple shis in career path

A word of caution here. As you review, be aware of generational differences. Meaning the values and work ethics attributed to the different generations. A baby boomer may see someone who frequently changes jobs as a job hopper or someone not able to hold a job. On the other hand, a Gen Y’er may see the same person as someone expanding their horizons or making themselves more marketable. Be aware of these differences and do not stereotype an applicant as you review the resume.

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7. If in doubt, check it out. Applicants always should include a list of references with their resume. Do not be afraid to call references and ask if there are things about the candi date you should know more about.

8. Finally, schedule interviews with those candidates who have passed your initial screening process.

Remember, the more you review resumes, the better your resume review will become. With practice, your resume review should yield great candidates for you to consider for employment.

In closing, please review the following Checklist for Reviewing Resumes or Application Forms.

Checklist for Reviewing Resumes or Application Forms

Sort applicants by the job for which they are applying. Save miscellaneous applications for last.

• Review the job description(s) for the position(s) you are attempting to fill. Note minimum requirements needed and refer to them oen as you review resumes/applications.

• Ignore the applicant’s name, address or personal information to limit subconscious biases.

• Attempt to ignore superficial issues such as style and typographical areas in favor of content unless such issues are directly related to the position for which

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they are applying. Such scrutiny may unintentionally rule out members of protected classes.

• Check work experience for applicability to the position for which they are applying, length of time they have worked in similar areas, promotions or awards received, and reasons for leaving.

• Note gaps in employment but do not assume they were caused by negative reasons.

• Check educational background for qualifications necessary to have successful job performance.

• Note special skills (i.e. computer soware, office equipment).

• Note on a separate piece of paper any pertinent questions that arise when reviewing the resume/ application and ask those during your initial contact with the prospect.

• Divide resumes into 3 groups—one for those that closely match job requirements and for which a preliminary contact is appropriate, one for those who meet some requirements and may be considered at some point, and one for those who do not meet the requirements at all.

• If necessary, screen the top group again to further narrow down the candidates. On average, about 10 resumes per open position should be sufficient.

During your initial contact with them, briefly describe the position, location, hours and salary range (if appropriate) and

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ask if the candidate is still interested in being considered. If so, this is the time to ask for clarification on any items you had questions about when reviewing their resume.

Hire the Most Qualified Applicant Using a Fair and Non-discriminatory Process

• Review the selection process to ensure that you treat each applicant fairly and consistently.

• Review the interview format and questions for possible bias. Consult with your HR group as well as others trained in the hiring process. en review the process with your recruiting team to ensure there are no questions that are biased and prejudicial. Discuss the impact of common biases such as stereotyping, unsubstantiated first impressions that may influence a decision, and assessments based on differing comfort levels with them. Reaffirm the fact that decisions must be made on facts, not on perceptions.

• Ensure that reasonable accommodations are made for the applicants, such as ensuring that handicapped access is available for an applicant in a wheelchair.

• If using a group interview process, create a diverse selection panel.

• Assess all candidates using the same selection criteria.

• Interview as many applicants as possible to increase the pool from which you will have to choose. Use competency-based interviewing techniques.

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• Eliminate interview questions that are not job related.

• Keep written records of all applicants interviewed and be certain that the information saved is relevant to the applicant’s ability to perform the required duties and are not simply personal opinions.

• Follow up with references aer the interview and ask job-related questions about the applicant’s knowledge, skills, and ability to do the job. Document questions and answers.

• Be consistent with reference checks. Weigh informa- tion received consistently for all applicants.

• Give all applicants an opportunity to address any negative feedback from reference checks.

• Document the selection process fully. Retain all records: interview questions, reference check questions and notes, and the completed interview assessment forms.

Background Checks and Reference Checks

Employers can check for criminal records when conducting employment background checks, but state laws limit the extent to which employers can use these when making hiring decisions. Examples of such decisions include the refusal to hire or promote based solely on their criminal record.

Restrictions concerning the use of criminal records are imposed by state and federal laws and by guidelines established by state

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government agencies and civil rights organizations. Restrictions vary by state. But, overall:

• Employers usually can not disqualify job candidates solely on the grounds that they have criminal records.

• Employers typically may not ask about or consider a juvenile criminal record to make job or other employment-related decisions.

• Employers typically have the right to ask about and conduct an adult criminal record search to make job or other employment decisions.

• Employment decisions about whether or not to hire should be limited to convictions only. Just because an applicant may be charged with a felony does not make them automatically guilty.

• Employers must show that an applicant’s conviction would have an impact on their suitability to fill a position before the employer can make a hiring decision based solely on the conviction. An applicant with a criminal history of child abuse would not be a good fit for a job in a day-care center.

Again, restrictions vary by state. Some are very rigid in what they allow and do not allow, while others may have no restrictions. Regardless, the United States Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) has imposed specific employment discrimination laws which are very broad in nature and sometimes loosely defined.

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For example, if an employer does not hire an applicant because of the specifics of their criminal record, the EEOC still could say that employment discrimination has occurred if that applicant were a member of an ethnic group. It is impor- tant to remember that you must have a justifiable business reason to deny employment if criminal background is involved. If you have any questions about this, or just are not sure, contact your local EEOC field office for more information.

A note of importance: Some states require certain employers to conduct criminal record checks for specific convictions before hiring employees. Employers required to conduct criminal record checks typically are engaged in businesses that involve so-called vulnerable individuals such as children and elderly adults. Examples include child care, education, and home health care.

Pre-Employment Inquiries

U.S. federal law requires employers to conduct the applicant screening and hiring process in a nondiscriminatory manner. Pre-employment inquiries (on application forms, by telephone, in interviews) can be considered illegal if they screen out women, minorities or other protected groups. As a result, the EEOC cautions that inquiries concerning an applicant’s race, color, religion, or national origin may be regarded as discriminatory.

Exceptions: Pre-employment inquiries are permissible if required by local, state, or federal law. ey are also allowed when religion and national origins are bona fide occupational

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qualifications (BFOQs), or where the employer can prove that the inquiry is justified by business necessity and is job-related.

Reference Checks

In addition to contacting former employers and personal references, many organizations expand the selection process to include checks for driving records, education, and other professional credentials and credit history. In general, the following rules apply:

• Check federal, state and local laws and regulations before proceeding.

• Be certain there is a job- or business-related reason for the selection processes utilized (i.e., motor vehicle checks for drivers, credit checks for bank tellers.)

• Explain the procedures on the application form, in the interview, or wherever appropriate.

• Have the applicant sign an authorization form for each of the types of information to be checked. Legal counsel can assist with proper wording.

• ere are numerous firms that provide assistance with background checks. Be certain they are reputable and comply with all federal, state and local laws.

• Maintain confidentiality.

Other Legal Considerations

Every country has employment laws that govern the do’s and don’ts of recruiting and interviewing. Although we have

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highlighted some areas that all leaders should be aware of, this is not a complete list of legal considerations. A good Human Resources person or employment attorney can be a huge asset to ensure your processes and procedures keep you out of court.

Developing the Interview and Questions

Respect the Candidate

Valuing candidate’s time can be one of the most important drivers in the interview process.

1. e interview schedule should meet candidate and interview team needs to the extent possible.

2. Try to minimize follow-up interviews for candidates as much as possible (particularly out-of-town applicants). Web-based preliminary interviews are particularly helpful and convenient for out-of-town candidates.

3. Make sure that every member of your interview team starts and ends the interview on time. Schedule a 15-minute buffer between interviews in the event one of them runs long or a candidate shows up late.

4. Make sure you schedule a lunch break for your interview team so they can relax and re-energize. If possible, have the team members eat together so they can discuss the events of the morning.

5. Keep the number of interviews manageable.

6. Ensure all interviewers have a copy of the candidate’s resume in advance.

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7. Appoint an individual to be the point person for the candidate.

8. Provide the candidate with a follow-up timeline, or what will happen next.

We want candidates to feel their time has been well-spent. When the candidate leaves, they should have clear expectations about the next step and a positive impression of the organization.

Once interviews have been completed, the interview team should meet to discuss the candidates and make a selection decision. is should be done as soon as the interview team is able.

If the decision is to extend an offer, work with appropriate staff to develop the offer and convey it to the candidate.

If you’re not going to hire a candidate, tell them. Be sure to communicate in a timely fashion.

If the decision is to hold onto the candidate (not offer but not reject), someone on the interview team should contact them to let them know they are a viable candidate and what to expect next. Sometimes you may hold a candidate until your top one accepts the job offer or until additional candidates have been interviewed.

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Core Competencies: Behavioral Definitions

Adaptability: • Seek, understand, and accept change.

• Treat change and new situations as opportunities for learning or growing.

• Focus on the beneficial aspects of change.

• Speak positively about the change to others.

• Modify behavior to deal effectively with changes in the work environment.

• Try new approaches for new situations.

Teamwork: • Value, appreciate, and include others.

• Place team or organizational goals ahead of personal ones.

• Help others achieve mutual goals.

• Exchange ideas freely and then build on them.

• Get team consensus on ideas and then take action on them.

Integrity: • Be honest and forthright.

• Present information accurately and completely.

• Keep commitments.

• Keep confidences.

• Be consistent with words and actions.

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• Represent organizational strengths and abilities fairly and equitably.

Initiative: • Take thoughtful, yet timely action when confronted with a problem or difficult situation.

• Implement new ideas or solutions without being prompted.

• Be an overachiever. Go above and beyond basic job requirements in order to achieve goals.

• Seek opportunities to improve efficiencies and reduce costs.

Innovation: • Identify alternate ways to view or define problems.

• Use as many diverse sources for ideas and inspiration as you can find.

• Brainstorm ideas.

• Consider multiple solutions.

• Target areas for innovation.

Functional Competencies: Behavioral Definitions

Accounting and Finance: • Prepare cost projections for new and existing products and submit them in a monthly report to your manager.

• Ensure inventory accounts are properly funded on a monthly basis.

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Administrative: • Prepare and/or coordinate such things as travel arrangements, presentations, meetings, and other functions as requested by manager.

• Enter all necessary data into the books, and then review and reconcile the books on a monthly basis to ensure that all invoices are submitted and/or paid prior to due dates.

Engineering: • Design, write, and execute standard protocols.

• Support manufacturing through continuous process/ product improvement efforts.

Human Resources: • Analyze data in regards to turnover, cost per hire, compensation, benefits, and affirmative action relative to industry trends. Report findings to management on a monthly basis.

• Monitor the effectiveness of all policies and procedures to ensure compliance. Support and broaden the diver- sity of your workforce through both your hiring and your promotion efforts.

Information Technology: • Prioritize and manage Information System projects to assure they are on time and on budget. If the project involves new hardware or soware, ask for feedback from users to ensure everything is running as

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expected and they are properly trained on the use of the new products.

• Monitor network performance for problems on a daily basis.

Warehouse Operations: • Check incoming procurements against requisitions, shipping memos, packing slips, invoices, and/or freight bills to assure that all orders are received in full and arrived in good condition. Also, make sure that all outgoing sales and orders are packaged and shipped in a timely manner. If inconsistencies are found in either incoming or outgoing products, report them to management on the shi on which they were found.

• Read and understand all rules and regulations pertaining to warehouse management, especially those related to the occupational safety and health hazard-related issues.

Production: • Check product/production outputs for accuracy, quality, and quantity on a daily, sometimes even an hourly basis. If there are negative variances, try to determine the cause.

• Ensure that all equipment is properly set up and in safe working condition on a shi-by-shi basis. Report any deficiencies immediately.

• Provide operator training on all equipment and then monitor performance to ensure proficiency and abilities.

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Quality/Regulatory Affairs: • Periodically conduct quality assurance checks. is includes checking incoming materials, work in progress, and finished goods. Ensure that all work being done is according to well defined criteria and follows rules and regulations defined by regulatory agencies.

• Analyze all data received and communicate results to your management team. Look for any gaps in expected outcomes. en create and assign action plans to ensure corrections are made.

Research and Development: • Develop tactics and strategies that encourage the development and launch of new products and services. Conduct marketing surveys to find what customers want and need. Share success stories at monthly department meetings.

Sales and Marketing: • Develop and implement strategies and tactical plans to achieve current and long-range sales goals for assigned products. Communicate these to management on a quarterly basis.

• Modify proposals or plans to deal with customers’ concerns and incorporate customers’ suggestions on an ongoing basis.

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Scientific/Medical: • Coordinate input, collaboration, and consultation for the design of clinical protocols and submissions to ensure the proper product indications are supported. Ensure medical and scientific protocol validity.

• Generate sound scientific data by identifying and solving problems, planning and taking the lead on assigned development projects, writing and reviewing scientific reports, and performing laboratory activities.

Leadership Competencies: Behavioral Definitions

Build Our Organization and Inspire Our People: • Determine and acquire, or develop, the knowledge, skills, and abilities needed to achieve the organization’s goals.

• Staff the organization from various disciplines, backgrounds, and cultures to promote and capitalize on diversity and to ensure complementary talents and skills.

• Create a committed and productive organization that acts with integrity.

• Establish clear expectations and provide timely, accurate feedback, both positive and negative. Take appropriate follow-up action when needed.

• Recognize, reward, and promote people based on their performance, achievements, and development of competencies.

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• Serve as a role model.

Set Vision and Strategy:

• Understand trends, their implications, and opportunities in the global environment.

• Maintain a strong customer focus.

• Identify and capitalize upon opportunities to create value from cross-division capabilities.

• Communicate the business vision and strategies to all in the organization.

• Look to the future using the global marketplace, technology, and business knowledge to identify emerging opportunities, and then seize them.

• Translate the business vision and broad strategies into concrete, actionable strategic plans and goals, prioritizing goals, projects, and plans appropriately.

Encourage Open Exchange of Ideas and Knowledge: • Foster a work environment that encourages open communication and knowledge sharing, leveraging that sharing to drive continuous improvement and positive outcomes.

• Encourage the expression of opposing and differing points of view.

• Practice effective listening skills.

• Listen and think about diverse or differing ideas before responding.

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• Proactively seek feedback and demonstrate a willingness to learn and change.

• Give honest, timely feedback, both positive and critical, to staff as well as to higher-level management.

Know the Business: • Continuously scan the environment, identifying key issues, trends, relationships, and cause/effect as they affect the business.

• Learn from and build on business experience to ensure success.

• Demonstrate a strong personal capability for learning new aspects of the business and encourage others to do the same.

Drive for Results: • Collaboratively set realistic, challenging, measurable goals and timetables.

• Set short-term objectives that drive longer-term goals or strategies.

• Support staff with necessary resources to achieve goals.

• Hold yourself and others accountable for delivering high-quality results.

• Regularly evaluate yourself and your team on goal attainment, the process used to achieve goals and competitive benchmarks.

• Be tenacious.

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Make the Difficult Decisions:

• Demonstrate the willingness to make and accept unpopular decisions or take opposing positions.

• Challenge the status quo on traditional ways of doing things.

• Recognize signs of crisis situations and take corrective action at the earliest indication of trouble.

• Recognize errors and make corrections as necessary.

• Make the difficult decisions when needed.

General Guidelines for Choosing Questions

Using behavior-based questions is an effective way to learn how the candidate has responded in the past. Since past behav- ior is the best predictor of future behavior, we highly suggest using behavior-based questions. Although situational questions can be useful, candidates can oen give you a textbook answer without ever having been in the situation themselves.

A behavior based question is an open-ended one that causes the candidate to discuss how they have responded to a situa- tion in the past. Each question asks the candidate to evaluate:

1. A positive situation/task

2. A negative situation/task

3. A situation/task with a subordinate, co-worker, supervisor or customer.

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Choose questions for each competency that you are seeking for a particular position. Make sure you address each type of question for each competency. By looking at questions from various perspectives, you will gain further insight into personality factors as revealed through behaviors.

How to Create Your Own Behavior-Based Interview Question

Sometimes, particularly with functional competencies, you will need to create your own behavior-based questions. Following the steps below, you will be able to create legal and behaviorally orientated questions in no time.

Remember, the point of the question is to use the past to help predict the future.

1. Begin by identifying the position’s behavior and related competency.

2. A good way to start a question is with one of the following phrases “Describe a time, situation, action …” “Tell me about …” “Give an example of …” or “Provide an example of a situation when …”

3. When choosing your words, use terminology specific to the position.

4. Get to the heart of the matter quickly — questions should be no more than one to two sentences.

5. Avoid creating a scenario for the candidate. Words that indicate you are doing this include “like,” “for example,” and “for instance.”

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6. Review your questions to ensure that they are legal.

7. Remember, if it is not job-related, it is not relevant.

8. Human Resources should review any questions you create.

Beyond the First Behavioral Question

A good behavioral-based question will accomplish two things: 1) get the candidate talking and 2) give you an oppor- tunity to see how the candidate acted or reacted. Your job is not done aer you ask the first question, though. Sometimes you will need more information. Remember that all behav- ior- based interview questions seek a STAR within the answer. S/T is the situation/task; A is the action the candidate took in that instance; R is the result. When using the STAR method, ask questions starting with “How,” “What,” “When,” “Where,” and “Why.”

Do not hesitate to ask for the outcome in both subjective and objective forms. If the candidate cannot think of a time they experienced a situation or task, do not let them speculate on how they may have responded. Suggest a scenario or two to jog their memory. If they still cannot think of a situation, move on to the next question. is tells you something about them that is helpful.

Core Competencies and Corresponding Questions

Listed below are the core competencies we described earlier, along with some behavior based questions/situations that can be used as examples to help you build your own questions.

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Adaptability: • Describe a time when you came up with a new process while in your position.

• Describe a time when you had to change your thinking when you really did not want to or did not agree with what was being proposed.

Teamwork: • Give an example of a time when you encouraged a more reserved member of the team to contribute to the sharing of ideas.

• Give an example of a time when you put your personal interests aside in order to recognize the achievement of a team member or the organization.

• Tell about a time when you supported an organization’s decisions even though you felt as though there were better alternatives.

Integrity: • Tell about a time when you were asked to do something that you believed was not right.

• Describe a time when you were asked to provide a customer with a product or service that was not truly needed.

• Describe a time when you were given full credit for a job when there were actually others who had contributed significantly to the outcomes.

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Initiative: • Explain the manner in which you handled a difficult situation with a customer.

• Describe a time when you identified a small problem before it became a big problem.

• Give an example of a new idea you came up with and presented without the prompting of your supervisor.

Innovation: • Describe a time when you came up with a new way of looking at things.

• Give one or two examples of changes you have made to the way things used to be done prior to your moving into your current position.

• Give an example of an unusual place you found information that has helped you on the job.

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Chapter 5

Leadership Communications

Effective communication has occurred only when the receiver understands the message.

Communications

Effective communication is ESSENTIAL to being successful in the workplace. e biggest cause of workplace problems is poor communications. e key to the communication process is to be understood.

Functions of Communication

1. Convey ideas, concepts, plans, procedures, work requirements, etc.

2. Motivate, inspire, and direct performance in others.

3. Provide a release for concerns, problems, issues, and workplace conflict.

4. Provide information needed to make informed decisions.

Communication Goals

e aim of communication is the transference and under- standing of information between two or more people.

Communication always must be between two or more people. ere is always a sender and a receiver. You participate in both roles, and your role will change alternatively and frequently throughout the conversation.

Effective communication has occurred only when the receiver understands the message. Feedback is critical to ensuring that the message has been accurately received and understood.

Six Barriers to Effective Communication

1. Filtering: A sender’s manipulation of information so that it will be seen more favorably by the receiver.

2. Selective Perception: People selectively interpret what they see on the basis of their interests, background, experience, and attitudes.

3. Information Overload: A condition in which information inflow exceeds an individual’s processing capacity.

4. Emotions: How a receiver feels at the time a message is received will influence how the message is interpreted.

5. Language: Words have different meanings to different people.

6. Communication Apprehension: Undue tension and anxiety about oral communication, written communication, or both.

A Good Communicator:

• Seeks out and is receptive to input from others.

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• Uses a variety of questioning techniques to gain insight and participation into conversation.

• Practices active listening.

• Channels information upward, downward, and laterally.

• Coordinates with all other leaders, peers, superiors, and subordinates.

• Consistently reviews daily operations and provides feedback and/or instructions.

• Uses a variety of communication vehicles and chooses the most appropriate vehicle(s) and/or style(s) for a given situation.

• Effectively presents ideas to work group members.

• Explains the “why” behind work assignments and activities/policies that impact the work group or individual employees.

• Identifies and resolves communication problems between group members, including when it involves them.

Active Listening

Active listening is a communication technique that reduces defensiveness and loss of self-esteem, and acts to defuse an emotional exchange. e term “active listening” means the ability to pick up, define, and respond accurately to the feel- ings expressed by the other person. When active listening is employed, people perceive that they are being understood.

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When you fail to listen well, you risk:

• Misreading people’s intentions • Misinterpreting ideas • Confusing the issue • Misjudging people’s qualifications • Misunderstanding instructions • Jumping to the wrong conclusions • Antagonizing people

e Four Steps of Active Listening

1. Listen: To feelings as well as to words, emotions, and implications. Focus on the speaker. Look at them. Use verbal and nonverbal encouraging signs to let them know you are listening to them. Do not plan what to say or get distracted while listening.

2. Question: Demonstrates you are listening. Use to gather information and to obtain clarification. Ask open-ended questions such as “Tell me more,” “How did you feel?” or “en what happened?”

3. Reflect-Paraphrase: In your own words, reflect what is said and the feelings expressed, reframe to capture the essence of the communication, remove negative framing, and move toward problem solving.

4. Agree: Get speaker’s consent to your reframing. is lets the speaker know they have been heard. Let them know that a solution is near!

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Climbing the LADDER—to better listening

LOOK at the speaker — Meanings are not in the words, but in the people.

ASK questions — e quickest way to become a listener.

DO NOT interrupt — It is just as rude to step on people’s ideas as it is to step on their toes.

DO NOT change the subject — Listening means wanting to hear.

EMOTIONS — Leaders should be aware of their own emotions, and be aware of the emotional undercur- rents in the environment. Emotions create a storm and others will back away.

RESPONSIVE listening — When people feel that their leader no longer listens or responds, they will go somewhere else.

Giving and Receiving Feedback

10 Common Performance Feedback Mistakes

1. Speaking out only when things are wrong. “Praise to a human being represents what sunlight, water and soil are to a plant — the climate in which one grows best.” — Earl Nightingale

2. ”Drive-by” praise without specifics or an honest underpinning. — “Great job!”

3. Waiting until performance or behavior is substantially below expectations before acting on it.

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4. Giving positive or negative feedback long aer the event has occurred.

5. Not taking responsibility for your thoughts, feelings, actions, and reactions. “is comes straight from the boss.”

6. Giving feedback through email messages, notes, or over the telephone.

7. Giving negative feedback in public.

8. Criticizing performance without giving suggestions for improvement.

9. No follow-up aerwards.

10. Not having regularly scheduled performance review meetings.

Four Tips for Effective Performance Feedback

1. Be proactive. Nip issues in the bud and avoid the messy interpersonal tangles that result from neglected communication. Meet with employees on a monthly or quarterly basis instead of annually. is lets them know that they are important to you and you care about their success.

2. Be specific. It is never easy to provide negative feedback regarding someone’s work, but as a leader you cannot avoid it. Be as clear as possible when providing feedback (both positive and negative). Give specific examples that illustrate your points. For example, instead of saying, “Your attitude is bad” or “at did not work,” you might say something like, “When you miss deadlines, then

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cross your arms and look away when I discuss it with you, it gives me the impression that you do not care about the quality of your work. I’d like to believe this isn’t true. Can you help me explain this better?”

3. Develop a progress plan. Tell them what specifically needs to change and when that change needs to occur. Schedule follow-ups to check on progress and then make sure you follow up as scheduled.

4. Link employee performance to organizational goals. Reinforce the value of your employees’ contributions by giving specific examples of how their work and positive behaviors serve the organization and its customers.

Receiving Feedback

Accept it in the spirit it is given. Do not become defensive or argue with the person. Do not try to justify your position. Just listen. Ask questions for clarification. If you think the person is right, say so and thank them. If not, just thank them.

Job Performance Feedback: 7 Tips for Receiving Feedback Gracefully

1. Welcome Constructive Feedback. Your powers of self- perception go only so far. People around you notice things, both good and bad, which you may or may not see and you might learn from their input. ere is a virtuous circle of feedback whereby the more you seek it, the less you can hide bad behavior. EBay seller feedback is an excellent example of a transparent feedback process that encourages positive behaviors.

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2. Do Not Justify Your Position. Telling the person why their feedback is wrong will not work. Arguing, justifying your position, or denying anything is wrong, are all powerful negative emotions that make conversations more challenging than they need to be. e results from this type of behavior are usually hurt feelings, and intense anger and distrust.

3. Do Accept Feedback At Face Value. Although the feedback might feel like a personal insult against you as a person, keep things in perspective. e feedback is usually about something specific that occurred which, now that you know about it, you can correct.

4. Do Not Ruminate on Feedback. Only cows need to ruminate before they digest. Chewing on, or thinking over and over again about feedback that is less than glowing will do nothing more than increase your feelings of resentment over receiving it. Avoid the temptation to re-enact the conversation with a friend as this only makes you feel ten times worse. Do talk about it with someone else, but make sure you are emotionally detached first.

5. Do Evaluate Feedback Before Responding. Feedback oen tells you more about the person saying it than it does about you. For example, a person who says you never praise their work might have difficulty evaluating their work themselves. Teaching this person to do a good self-evaluation of their own performance might be a better approach than you trying to praise them over and

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over again. In the long run, you will be doing them a favor by giving them a much needed boost to their self-esteem.

6. Do Not row Your Toys from the Pushchair. Sulking, stonewalling or withdrawing from the person giving the feedback is childish. If need be, give yourself some space from the person, allowing yourself time to calm down and deal with the feedback and person as a rational adult.

7. Do Make a Choice on How to Use the Feedback. Feedback can be a gi allowing you to grow and develop as a person in a job or in a relationship. On the other hand, some feedback is downright useless and best ignored. It is ultimately your choice how to act, or not, upon feedback received. For example, let’s assume you receive internal customer feedback saying you do not do “x” and they think you should. You actually have spent time consid- ering “x” and have determined that it is simply not cost-effective. ank them for the feedback, letting them know the history of what you have done and then ask how else you could meet their needs. Chances are they will be satisfied with your explanation and not notice that you did not respond directly to their feedback.

Communicating Non-Defensively 4

We are all naturally defensive to some degree, and it is no more apparent than in our communications with others.

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What can lead us and others we work with towards defensive communications?

How do defensive communications interfere with problem solving and dealing with performance issues?

If we learn how to communicate non-defensively and teach others to do the same, we can:

• Reduce interpersonal conflict.

• Help people communicate more openly and honestly.

Five Skills to Communicating Non-Defensively:

1. Disengage

• Back off from the situation.

• Take some time to think through the problem.

• Re-examine from a more objective viewpoint.

• Realize that it is probably not a personal attack.

2. Empathize

• Imagine yourself in the other person’s position.

• Consider other viewpoints. • Let the other person know that you understand their perspective.

3. Inquire

• Ask questions that allow you to learn more about the problem.

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• Get to the specifics of the issue.

• Encourage both sides to focus on a solution, not the defensive problem.

• Listen to all sides—use your active listening skills.

4. Disclose

• Reveal your own needs and concerns in a

non-defensive manner.

• Be honest and direct.

• Be attentive, but not overly apologetic.

• Make “I” statements.

5. Depersonalize

• Discuss the issue objectively.

• See your work as what you do, not who you are.

• As you change your behavior towards others,

you shape their response to you.

Why Might We Communicate Defensively?

• Low self-esteem—fear of being perceived as incompetent or fear of being criticized.

• Take the comments personally—assume the attack is personal rather than issue-based.

How Do People Respond to Defensive Communications?

• We shut down—fight back with passive aggression.

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• We respond defensively, which creates a defensive chain and the cycle continues.

• e defensive chain can ripple out to others in the organization.

–––––––––––– 4 Adapted from Communicating Non-Defensively, revised edition (1994). Carlsbad, CA: CRM Learning, L.P.

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Chapter 6

Project Management Leadership

Project-management tools help you prioritize and manage your work efforts.

Project Planning

Basic Project Planning and Management Steps

1. Analyze the project.

• Define the project • List Project Objective Statement • Should include criteria for project • Major deliverables for project • List the activities—develop Work Breakdown Structure • Consider your workforce/resources • Identify the time required for the activities

2. Determine a sequence for the project based on the activities involved, the workforce that will do the work, and the time required for the activities.

• Consider sequence-dependent activities (those tasks that must be done in sequence)

• Consider sequence-independent activities (tasks that can be done in parallel)

3. Estimate resources needed for the project.

• Consider your own internal resources • Obtain outside resources as required • Person doing the work must be the person estimating resources • Cannot estimate if you have no knowledge of how to do the job • Use efficiency factor: six work hours in an eight-hour day

4. Build a project management chart.

• PERT or Gantt Chart or Critical Path Method • Synchronization Matrix • Important to determine critical path • Use Forward Pass/Backward Pass methods

5. Communicate the plan.

• Your team, supervisor, and peers who also may be involved • Refine the plan as needed based on input • Use Network Communication Circle—free and open communications

6. Initiate the project.

• Organize the team • Provide leadership for the project

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7. Monitor progress.

• Refine the plan and adjust as needed based on the evolving situation

• Communicate updates as required to those who need to know

• Use effective decision making during the project

• When conflict arises, remember smoothing, avoiding, forcing, compromising, collaboration response styles

¤ Smoothing — focusing on the other person’s view while minimizing real differences; used when things get emotional or when faced with time constraints.

¤ Avoiding — refusing to confront the conflict; used in hostile situations, when you have a lack of authority to make decisions, or when someone else can do it better.

¤ Forcing — using your power to resolve an issue; used when you know a decision is outside the project scope, when there is potential for legal issues, or when facing major time constraints.

¤ Compromise — willing to make concessions; used when you need their support, when it will not have major impact on a project, when it is a no-win situation, or when you need something in return.

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¤ Collaboration — willing to work together to resolve issue; used whenever possible unless you know it will create legal or ethical issues.

¤ Your goal should be to collaborate whenever possible.

8. Complete the project.

• Conduct an Aer Action Review (AAR). is is a process to review what worked and did not work by asking simple questions such as:

1. What did we say we would do?

2. Did we accomplish this?

3. What worked well; and what should we do again? 4. What did not work well; and what should we discard in the future?

• Use the AAR results for continuous improvement in the workplace

• Determine Return on Investment (ROI) of project

• Use ROI Model:

A simple Return on Investment expresses the profitability of an investment in terms of a percentage of benefit on the original investment outlay.

Return on Investment = Net Benefit / Net Investment Cost x 100 In the ROI of data modeling, this would translate to:

Return on Investment = Net Savings Due to Data Modeling / Net Investment Cost in Data Modeling x 100

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For example, assume a savings due to data modeling of $500,000, and a data modeling cost of $250,000. e return on investment is 200%.

ROI does not consider the time value of money or the economic life of the project. is is the most basic ROI model. Depending on your audience, you may want to consider more pertinent models.

Deliberate Decision Making

e 7-Step Decision-Making Model

Step 1: Receive the Requirement

Requirements, tasks, missions, problems, ideas, questions, issues, etc., can come from anywhere. The challenge is to determine what you can readily solve and which ones require a deliberate decision-making process.

Step 2: Analyze the Requirement

• Describe and assess the operating environment. Possible considerations include the budget, existing plans, administrative requirements, environmental considerations, and any operational/logistical considerations.

• Identify facts and assumptions. A fact is what you know to be true. An assumption is what you think to be true, but need to verify before proceeding with the project.

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• Identify specified and implied tasks. Specified Task: stated in the requirement, usually the operational tasks. Implied Task: not stated, but tasks you will need to accomplish in order to fulfill the require- ment. Oen implied tasks are the support (logistical/environmental) tasks associated with the requirement.

• Identify constraints. Constraints can take the form of a requirement to do something (i.e., reduce costs by 10%) or a prohibition on action (i.e., no increase in overtime).

• Determine essential tasks. Highlight the specified or implied tasks that are essential in order to fulfill the requirement.

Step 3: Re-State the Requirement

Re-write/re-phrase the requirement in terms of what you need to do. Include the essential tasks in the re-stated require- ment. Include the “who/what/when/where/why” elements in the re-stated requirement.

Step 4: Develop Options

Develop two or three options. Options should be uniquely different from each other. Options often are based on the methods used to achieve the requirement (timeline, equipment involved, sequence of the operation, program management, etc.). Conduct a brainstorming session with your team. Good project managers will weigh options between both tasks and people. Failure to do so will usually result in making bad decisions.

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Step 5: Select the Best Option

Determine the best option and then make a recommendation. Use all the planning/decision-making tools. Sometimes the best decision is to simply go with your gut feel.

Explain your recommendation, providing a summary of your results and comparisons. When done, get the appropriate approval required to move forward.

Step 6: Implement the Best Option (A Written Plan)

• Situation. Describe the operating environment, your higher requirements, any additional assets available that are not normally assigned to your operation, and any nonvalidated assumptions.

• Re-state requirements. A concise statement of the project — who/what/when/where/why.

• Project Management. Project overview, project intent, project outcomes, sequence of operations/timetable, PERT/Critical Path Charts, and any contingencies, branches, sequels. Directed requirements/tasks (to your subordinate/adjacent units/departments).

• Logistical/Administrative Support. Includes Maintenance, Employee Relations/Safety, Contractors, Clerical, Permitting/Environmental, and any other support aspects to the project.

• Communications and Supervision. Includes flow of information, scheduled project updates, responsibili- ties of project manager, chain of command for the project.

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Step 7: Lead, Monitor, and Refine the Decision

• Provide appropriate leadership for the successful accomplishment of the project (mentoring, teaching, coaching, directing, consensus building).

• Monitor the project (time tables/synchronization matrix, project management tools, forecasting).

• Prioritize your efforts (use critical events developed during option development).

• Refine the project by forecasting potential problems. (If___ occurs, then we shi the plan to ___.) Do not spend much time if you need to make minor changes; but use a change order or deliberate decision-making process if major changes are needed.

Use project-management tools to help you prioritize and manage your work efforts.

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Chapter 7

Stress Management for Leadership

e art of stress management is to keep you at a level of stimulation that is healthy and enjoyable.

Managing Stress

Stress is a natural occurrence for most people as they conduct their jobs. Learning to manage stress is a leadership skill that you need to master. Make no mistake: unmanaged stress can kill you or, at a minimum, shorten your life. e physical impacts of stress are real, relevant, and something you, as a leader, must be able to recognize.

Managing stress helps you to:

• Perform at the peak of your abilities when under immense pressure.

• Produce good-quality work even when tasks are dull and repetitive.

• Improve the quality of your life, health and job.

• Avoid the problems of exhaustion, depression, ill health, burnout, and breakdown that are associated with excessive levels of long-term stress.

Consider stress to be anything that stimulates you and increases your level of alertness.

Life without stimulus would be incredibly dull and boring. Life with too much stimulus becomes unpleasant, tiring, and may damage your health or well-being. Too much stress can interfere seriously with your ability to perform effectively.

e art of stress management is to keep you at a level of stim- ulation that is healthy and enjoyable. Information provided here will help you to monitor and control stress so that you can find and operate at a level that is most comfortable for you. We will discuss strategies to reduce or eliminate sources of unpleasant stress. We also will explain what can happen when you do not control stress properly.

Most people realize that aspects of their work and lifestyle can cause stress. But also, it can be caused by your environment and by the food and drink you consume. ere are several major sources of stress:

• Survival stress: is may occur in cases where your survival or health is threatened, where you are put under pressure, or where you experience some unpleasant or challenging event. Here adrenaline is released in your body and you experience all the symptoms of your body preparing for fight or flight.

• Internally generated stress: is can come from anxiously worrying about events beyond your

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control. From a tense, hurried approach to life; or from relationship problems caused by your own behavior. It also can come from an addiction to and enjoyment of stress.

• Environmental and job stress: Here, your living or working environment causes the stress. It may come from noise, crowds, pollution, untidiness, dirt or other distractions. Alternatively, stress can come from events at work.

• Fatigue and overwork: Here, stress builds up over a long period. is can occur when you try to achieve too much in too little time, or where you are not using effective time-management strategies.

While a certain level of stress is necessary in order to avoid boredom, high levels of stress for a sustained period can damage your health. Note that as the stress you are under increases, your ability to recognize it oen decreases.

The 50 Proven Stress Reducers

Consider these proven stress reducers for both personal and on-the-job stress relief.

1. Allow 15 minutes of extra time to get to appointments. Arrive at the airport at least 90 minutes before domestic departures.

2. Allow yourself time—every day—for privacy, quiet time, and thinking.

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3. Always set up contingency plans—just in case. (If for some reason either of us is delayed, here is what we will do ___ .)

4. Ask questions. Taking a few moments to repeat directions or what you think someone wanted you to do can save hours.

5. Be flexible. Some things are worth not doing perfectly; some issues are best resolved with compromise.

6. Be optimistic. Most people are doing the best they can.

7. Be prepared to wait. A paperback, magazine, or e-book can make a wait in line almost pleasant.

8. Check your breathing throughout the day, especially before, during, and aer high-pressure situations. If you find your stomach muscles are knotted and your breathing is shallow, relax all your muscles and take several deep, slow breaths. Note how, when you are relaxed, both your abdomen and chest expand when you breathe. When feeling stressed, most people breathe in short, shallow breaths. When this occurs, stale air is not expelled, oxidation of the tissues is not complete, and the result is muscle tension.

9. Count your blessings. For every one thing that goes wrong there are probably 50 or 100 things that go right.

10. Do one thing at a time. When you are with someone, enjoy their company. When you are busy with a project, concentrate on doing that project and forget about everything else you have to do.

11. Do something for somebody else.

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12. Do something that will improve your appearance. Looking better can help you feel better.

13. Do not forget to take a lunch break. Get away from your desk or work area in body and mind, even if it is just for 15 or 20 minutes.

14. Do not put up with something that does not work correctly. If your alarm clock, wallet, shoelaces, windshield wipers—whatever—are a constant source of aggravation, get them fixed or get new ones.

15. Do not rely on your memory. Write down appointment times, when to pick up the laundry, and when library books are due. (“e palest ink is better than the most retentive memory.”)

16. Eliminate (or restrict) the caffeine and sugar in your diet.

17. Eliminate destructive self-talk: “I am too old to … ,” “I am too fat to … ,” etc.

18. Every day, do something you really enjoy. Such as: Before speaking in public, visualize every part of the experience in your mind. Imagine what you will wear, what the audience will look like, how you will present your talk, and how you will answer questions. Visualize the experience the way you want it to turn out.

19. Focus on understanding rather than on being understood and loving rather than on being loved.

20. Forget about counting to 10. Count to 100 before doing something or saying anything that could make matters worse.

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21. Get enough sleep. If necessary, use an alarm clock to remind you to go to bed.

22. Get up 15 minutes earlier in the morning. e inevitable morning mishaps will be less stressful.

23. Get up and stretch now and then if you have to sit for long periods in your job.

24. Have a forgiving view of things. Accept the fact that we live in an imperfect world.

25. If an unpleasant task faces you, do it early in the day and get it over with.

26. Inoculate yourself against a feared event. Just as vaccine containing a virus can protect you from illness, if you expose yourself to one or more of the dreaded aspects of an experience beforehand, you probably will feel less fearful.

27. Learn to delegate responsibility to others.

28. Learn to live one day at a time.

29. Make duplicates of all keys (label them!). Bury a house key in a secret spot in the garden; carry a duplicate car key in your wallet.

30. Make friends with non-worriers. Nothing can get you into the habit of worrying faster than association with a worrier.

31. Organize your home and workspace so that you always know exactly where things are. Put things away where they belong; you will not have the stress of trying to locate misplaced things.

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32. Plan ahead. Do not let the gas tank get below one-quarter full, keep a well-stocked emergency shelf or home staples and do not wait until you are down to your last postage stamp to buy more.

33. Practice preventative maintenance. Your car, appliances, home, and relationships will be less likely to break down or fall apart at the worst possible moment.

34. Prepare for the morning the evening before (e.g., set the breakfast table, make lunches, and lay out the clothes you plan to wear).

35. Relax your standards. e world will not end if the grass does not get mowed this weekend.

36. Say “no” to extra projects, social activities and invitations for which you know you lack the time or energy. is takes practice, self-respect, and a belief that everyone, every day, needs quiet time to relax and be alone.

37. Schedule a fun day. Allow plenty of “breathing time” between appointments.

38. Select an environment (work, home, leisure) that matches your personal needs and desires. If you hate to talk politics, do not associate with people who live the subject.

39. Simplify, simplify, simplify.

40. Take a refreshing bath or shower to relieve tension.

41. Take care of today the best you can. e yesterdays and tomorrows will take care of themselves.

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42. Talk it out. Discussing your problems with trusted friends can clear confusion.

43. ink “diversion.” When stress gets in the way of getting a job done, take a break. Refresh yourself with a change in activity and/or environment.

44. Try the following yoga technique whenever you feel the need to relax. Inhale deeply through your nose to the count of eight. en, with lips puckered, exhale very slowly through your mouth to the count of 16, or for as long as you can. Concentrate on the long sighing sound and feel the tension dissolve.

45. Turn needs into preferences. Our basic physical needs are food, water, and keeping dry and warm. Everything else is a preference. Do not get attached to preferences.

46. Turn off your phone if you want to take a bath, meditate, sleep, or read without interruption.

47. Use your weekend time for a change of pace. If your work week is slow and patterned, make sure there is action and time for spontaneity built into your weekends. If your work week is fast-paced and full of people and deadlines, seek peace and solitude during your days off.

48. Wear earplugs. If you need to find quiet, but Junior must practice the trombone, pop in some earplugs (available in any drugstore)—and smile.

49. Whatever you want to do tomorrow, do today; whatever you want to do today, do it now. Procrastination is stressful!

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50. Write your thoughts and feelings down in a journal (or on paper to be thrown away). is will help you clarify things and give you a new perspective on things.

Planning to Manage Stress

We operate best at an optimum stress level. Not having enough stress leaves us feeling bored and lethargic. Having too much stress damages our performance in the short term, and can lead to unhappiness, exhaustion, burnout and serious illness in the long term. It may not be obvious initially what causes you stress, whether you are effective in controlling it, or what your optimum stress level is.

Keeping a stress diary is an effective way to learn what causes your stress and what level of stress you prefer. In your diary, jot down your stress levels and how you feel throughout the day. In particular, jot down stressful events. After a few weeks you should be able to analyze this information. It may be interesting to note the outcomes of the jobs you were doing when you were under stress.

is should give you two types of information:

1. You should be able to understand the level of stress you are happiest with and the level of stress at which you work most effectively. You may find that your performance is good even when you feel upset by stress.

2. You should know what the main sources of unpleasant stress in your life are. You should understand what

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circumstances make stress particularly unpleasant, and you should begin to understand whether or not your strategies for handling the stress are effective.

Once you understand the level of stress under which you work most effectively, and know precisely

what is causing it, the next stage is to work out how to manage the stress.

It is probably worth keeping the diary only for a short period of time. You will find that the longer you keep the diary, the smaller the benefit of each additional day will be. If, however, your lifestyle changes or you begin to suffer from stress again in the future, it may be worth using the diary approach again. You probably will find that the stresses you face have changed. If this is the case, then keeping a diary again will help you to develop a different approach to dealing with them.

Once you understand the level of stress under which you work most effectively, and know precisely what is causing it, the next stage is to work out how to manage the stress. e best way of doing this probably will be to make an action plan of things that you are going to do when stress occurs. Some elements of this action plan will be actions you are going to take to contain, control or eliminate problems that are causing you stress. Other elements may be health-related, such as exercising more, changing your diet, or improving the quality of your environment. Another part of the plan may be to

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develop stress-management techniques that you will employ when stress levels begin to build.

Increasing Stress Levels—Psyching Up

When you are not feeling motivated about a task, either because you are bored by it or because you are tired, you may need to psych yourself up. is will increase your level of arousal so you can perform effectively.

You can use the following techniques to psyche up:

• Focus on the importance or urgency of the task.

• Set a challenge for yourself—i.e., to do the job in a particular time or to do it to a particularly high standard.

• Tell yourself—“I can feel energy flowing into me.”

• Break jobs down into smaller jobs, doing each part between more enjoyable tasks. Take satisfaction from the successful completion of each element.

Stress-Reduction Techniques

When choosing methods to combat stress, it is worth asking yourself where the stress comes from. If outside factors such as important events or relationship difficulties are causing stress, then a positive thinking- or imagery-based technique may be effective.

When stress and fatigue are long term, lifestyle and organi- zational changes may be appropriate. If the feeling of stress

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comes from adrenaline in your body, it may help to relax the body and slow the flow of adrenaline.

By anticipating stress, you can prepare for it and work out how to control it when it happens. is can be carried out in a number of ways:

• Rehearsal: By running through a stressful event such as an interview or a speech several times in advance, you can polish your performance and build confidence.

• Planning: By analyzing the likely causes of stress, you will be able to plan your responses accordingly. is might include actions to alleviate the situation or may be stress-management techniques that you will use. Regardless, it is important that you formally plan for this. It is of little use just worrying in an undisciplined way and will be counterproductive.

• Avoidance: When a situation is likely to be unpleasant and will yield no benefit to you, avoid it. But you should be certain this is the case.

A number of factors can make an event take on a high level of significance and cause stress:

• e importance and size of the event

• e prospect of a large financial reward, a promotion, or a personal advancement

• e presence of family, friends, or important guests.

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If stress is a problem under these circumstances, then think carefully about the event, and take every opportunity to reduce its importance in your eyes:

• If the event seems big, minimize it by comparing it to a bigger event you may have attended.

• If there is a financial reward, remind yourself that there may be other opportunities for reward later. Focus on the quality of your performance. Focusing on the rewards will damage your concentration and raise stress.

• If members of your family are watching, remind yourself that they love you anyway. If friends are real friends, they will continue to like you whether you win or lose.

• If people who are important to your goals are watching, remind yourself that you may well have other chances to impress them. People who are supportive and want to see you succeed will give you the benefit of the doubt.

If you focus on correctly performing your tasks then the importance of the event will dwindle into the background.

Uncertainty can cause high levels of stress. Causes of uncer- tainty can be:

• Not having a clear idea of what the future holds:

¤ Not knowing where your organization is going ¤ Not having any career development plans

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¤ Not knowing what will be expected from you in the future • Not knowing what your boss or colleagues think of your abilities. • Receiving vague or inconsistent instructions.

In these cases, lack of information or the actions of other people are negatively affecting your ability to perform.

e most effective way to counter this is to ask for the infor- mation you need. is might include asking for information about your organization’s performance. It may involve asking what your employer wants from you in the future so that you can set the appropriate career-development goals.

If you are unsure of how you are doing, ask for a performance review. When instructions are inconsistent or conflicting, ask for clarification. If you ask in a positive way, people are usually quite happy to help.

ought Awareness, Rational inking and Positive inking

ese three related tools are useful in combating negative thinking. Negative thinking causes stress because it damages your confidence that you are up to the task you face. Negative thoughts occur when you put yourself down, criticize yourself for errors, doubt your abilities, expect failure, etc. Negative thoughts also damage confidence, harms performance, and paralyzes mental skills.

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ought awareness is the process by which you observe your thoughts for a time, perhaps when under stress, and become aware of what is going through your head. It is best not to suppress any thoughts; just let them run their course while you observe them. Watch for negative thoughts while you observe your stream of consciousness. Normally these appear and disappear unnoticed.

Examples of common negative thoughts are:

• Worrying about how you appear to other people • A preoccupation with the symptoms of stress • Dwelling on consequences of poor performance • Self-criticism, feelings of inadequacy

Make a note of the thought and then let the stream of con- sciousness run on. ought awareness is the first step in the process of eliminating negative thoughts. You cannot counter thoughts you do not know you think.

Once you are aware of your negative thoughts, write them down and review them rationally. See whether the thoughts have any basis in reality. Oen you find that when you properly challenge negative thoughts they are obviously wrong. Oen they persist only because they escape notice.

You may find it useful to counter negative thoughts with positive affirmations. You can use affirmations to build confidence and change negative behavior patterns into positive patterns. You can base affirmations on clear, rational

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assessments of fact, and use them to undo the damage that negative thinking may have done to your self-confidence.

Examples of affirmations are:

• I can do this. • I can achieve my goals. • I am completely at peace with myself and people will like me for myself. • I am completely in control of my life. • I learn from my mistakes. ey increase the basis of experience from which I can draw. • I am a well-valued person in my own right.

Traditionally people have advocated positive thinking almost recklessly, as if it is a solution to everything. It should be used with common sense. No amount of positive thinking will make everyone who applies it an Olympic champion marathon runner (though an Olympic marathon runner is unlikely to have reached this level without being pretty good at positive thinking). Decide what goals you can realistically attain with hard work and then use positive thinking to reinforce these goals.

Physical relaxation techniques

ese are useful when stress is caused by physical processes in your body. Perhaps where muscles are tense, or where you are experiencing the effects of adrenaline. Exercising frequently is probably one of the best physical stress-reduction techniques

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available. Exercise not only improves your health and reduces stress caused by unfitness, but it also relaxes tense muscles and helps you to sleep.

Exercise has a number of other positive benefits you may not be aware of:

• It improves blood flow to your brain, increasing sugars and oxygen that may be needed when you are thinking intensely.

• When you think hard, the neurons of your brain function more intensely. As they do this they build up toxic waste products that cause decreased thinking in the short term and can damage the brain in the long term. By exercising, you speed the flow of blood through your brain, moving these waste products faster. You also improve this blood flow so that even when you are not exercising, waste is eliminated more efficiently.

• It can cause a release of chemicals called endorphins into your bloodstream. ese give you the feeling of happiness and well-being.

ere are a lot of wrong approaches to exercise. Many tradi- tionally recommended forms of exercise actually damage your body in the medium or long term. It is worth finding reputable and up-to-date sources of advice on exercise, possibly from a fitness specialist, and have them create a customized exercise plan for you. An important thing to

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remember is that exercise should be fun; if you do not enjoy it, then you probably will not keep doing it.

Deep breathing is a very effective method of relaxation. It is the core component of everything, including the take-ten-deep- breaths approach to calming down someone, as well as yoga relaxation and Zen meditation. It works well in conjunction with other relaxation techniques such as Progressive Muscular Relaxation, relaxation imagery, and meditation to reduce stress.

Techniques for Reducing Long-Term Stress

e main emphasis in the management of long-term stress is on adjusting your working methods and your lifestyle. Formal relaxation techniques have a part in this, but equally impor- tant are time-management skills, a positive attitude, a healthy diet with sufficient exercise and adequate rest, and a pleasant environment. Adjusting these things will improve the quality of your life as well as increase your resistance to stress.

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Chapter 8

Leadership Ethics

It is better to ask for permission than to ask for forgiveness

Ethical Choices

Ethical leaders are fair, consistent, and place the interests of their organization and team above their own. Ethical leaders exemplify solid ethical conduct for their entire team, all the time.

Ethical leadership requires us to consider our organizational values along with our personal ones as we conduct our business communications. Ethical leadership begins with identifying your own personal values and morals. You then need to know your organizational values or code of conduct. If your company does not have stated values or such a code, you should at least determine values and a code of conduct for your team.

Ethical decision making requires us to consider more than just the decision itself. It requires us to consider the choices available in terms of our business ethics. You first need to recognize if a moral or ethical conflict exists, and then you

have to evaluate alternatives from an ethical perspective in order to determine the right thing to do.

We frequently hear of an organization being accused of ethical misconduct. Almost all of these organizations had a code of ethics, detailed policies, and codes of conduct. But it is not the organization that behaved unethically. It was indi- viduals who misbehaved for one reason or another. In most circumstances, individuals, not organizations, make ethical choices, right or wrong.

Yet in most cases, we are not talking about bad people. It is usually good people who make bad choices.

A Self-Assessment

Consider these questions for a few moments.

In the last six months have you or someone you know:

• Called in sick when you/they actually were not? • Broken a confidence? • Ignored a policy or procedure? • Told a joke that might have offended someone? • Covered up a mistake made by someone else? • Covered up a mistake that you made? • Used an organization’s resources for personal use? • Received too much change when making a purchase and kept the extra money? • Made a copy of something without paying for it? • Told a little white lie?

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• Taken credit for someone else’s efforts? • Gossiped about someone in the office? • Fudged on an expense report? • Broke a “stupid” work rule? • Reproduced some personal documents on a printer or copier at work?

e ultimate leadership responsibility is modeling the behaviors you expect from others. To a large degree, you operate in a fishbowl. Employees are constantly watching you and learning from you. ey rightfully assume that it is okay to do whatever you do. Regardless of what is written or said elsewhere in the organization, your behavior is the performance standard employees will follow. at is a huge comes-with-the-territory responsibility. But it is also a great opportunity to be able to influence the ethics of your work unit and the entire organization.

Who is responsible for acting ethically? You are! It is not the company. It is not just the business owner. It is not only your manager. It is every person, regardless of position. Ultimately, each of us is responsible for our own actions, including being ethical. Considering the “3R’s” will point you and your em- ployees in the right ethical direction.

e first “R” of business ethics is RESPECT. It is an attitude that must be applied to people, organizational resources, and the environment. Respect includes behavior such as:

• Treating everyone (customers, co-workers, vendors, etc.) with dignity and courtesy.

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• Using company supplies, equipment, time, and money appropriately, efficiently, and for business use only.

• Protecting and improving your work environment, and abiding by laws, rules and regulations that exist to protect our world and our way of life.

e second “R” of business ethics is RESPONSIBILITY. You have a responsibility to your customers, your co-workers, your organization and yourself. Included are behaviors such as:

• Providing timely, high-quality goods and services.

• Working collaboratively and carrying your share of the load.

• Meeting all performance expectations and adding value.

e third “R” of business ethics is RESULTS. Understanding that the way results are attained—the means—is every bit as important, if not more important, than the ultimate goals— the ends. Using the phrase, “e end justifies the means” is an excuse too oen used to explain an emotional response or action that was not well-planned or carefully considered.

Obviously, you are expected to get results for your organization and customers. However, you are also expected to get those re- sults legally and morally. If you lose sight of this responsibility, you jeopardize your job, business and career.

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Values-based Decision Making

A values-based, decision-making template

1. Discuss the situation and describe the difference between behavior observed and behavior expected based upon your mission, vision, and values.

2. Explore why there might be a difference between what is observed and what is expected.

3. Differentiate between the symptoms of the problem (what you are seeing) and the problem itself (why it might be occurring).

4. Develop a strategy to address the problem(s) with the person and/or others involved in the situation.

5. Identify specific conversational actions you will take and how you will use your mission, vision, and values to address the situation. What are your core messages?

As a leader, you have the ultimate responsibility for your actions. You, and you alone, are responsible. You can never forget, that if you are a supervisor or manager, you need to provide the means that allow your people to act ethically. is is how an organization supports the ethical actions of its em- ployees.

Knowing what is ethical and what is not is essential. However, it’s far more difficult to do what’s right than to know what’s right. Doing the right thing is not always easy, but it is always right. It is a requirement for long-term success.

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e first step in doing what is right is to ask yourself if it meets ethical or moral guidelines before moving ahead or implement- ing a decision.

Use the questions below for guidance to test if a decision or action is ethical or moral. ese are similar to the guidelines for knowing what is right.

If you answer “no” to any of the questions, you should develop an alternate strategy, or seek counsel and advice from appropriate sources.

Do what is right: Will it pass the Ethical Action Test for ideas and actions? • Is it legal? • Does it comply with company rules and regulations? • Is it in sync with organizational values? • Will you be comfortable and guilt-free if you do it? • Is it in line with stated commitments and guarantees? • Would I do it to my family or friends? • Would it be OK for someone to do it to me? • Would the most ethical person you know do it? • How would this look on the front page of my local newspaper?

ese are practical and useful tests of your ideas and actions that will help you live up to your responsibility to be ethical and successful. However, you should not limit these to only your business dealings. Remember, acting ethically is not something you simply turn on and off. It is a part of everything you do.

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When In Doubt About Ethics Questions—ASK!

There is a common phrase in today’s business world that people use to justify their actions or determine ways to over- come the obstacles of bureaucracy, “red tape,” and move a project ahead. is phrase is: It is easier to ask for forgiveness than to ask for permission.

In the context of ethics, however, this statement is incorrect and could cause people to act unethically. When dealing with ethics, this concept would serve you best if you reversed it: It is better to ask for permission than to ask for forgiveness.

The reason for this is that the stakes in behaving ethically in business are very high. We see weekly, if not daily, news reports about how one or two people made poor ethical choices that caused disaster in their company. One poor decision could potentially impact hundreds, even thousands of people. When the results of the decisions you make have the potential to affect so many, it is better to ask for permission before you act.

The most important thing to remember is to keep asking until you get an answer.

You are expected to continually do what is right and ethical at work. ere are resources available to you (e.g. employee handbook, the organization’s mission, vision, and values;

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the values and attributes of leadership, etc.) to help meet that expectation. Use those resources when needed and obtain input from others whenever you can.

Whenever you are unsure if an action you are about to take is appropriate or not, ask a proper authority such as your boss, a senior manager, a mentor, the owner (if you work at a small company), someone in the Human Resources Department, or in the Legal Department for counseling. e most important thing to remember is to keep asking until you get an answer.

Business Ethics and Compliance

Business ethics involves a lot more than compliance with company policies, laws, and financial regulations. Most organizations do not have problems with people following these rules and regulations. Instead, it is the little things that cause problems. It is our day-to-day seemingly insignificant actions and behaviors that have the greatest chance of causing ethical issues.

e little things that we do every day can become so repeti- tious that we tend to forget we are even doing them. However, the “little things” we do can have a significant impact on people who observe these behaviors.

Remember, your behavior sets an example. Even if you are not the boss, there is always someone watching you for cues on how to act in certain situations — whether good or bad. ese observers may be your fellow workers, neighbors,

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spouse, or children. What messages are you sending by your actions, words and attitudes?

To help you examine your personal ethics and see where you stand and where you need to improve, consider the following:

• Little white lies you tell • Jokes you share • e way you treat and talk about co-workers • ings you say and do to make a sale • E-mails you write and those you forward • e way you handle customer complaints (including the number of people they get passed to) • What you put on your billing sheets, time sheets, and expense reports • Office supplies you take home • Commitments you do not keep • Personal business you conduct at work • Unimportant work rules you fail to follow • Non-work items you reproduce on the copy machine • Standards you set for yourself • e level of quality you put into whatever you do • Credit you share with others

ese and scores of additional behaviors like them reflect who you are and what you stand for. When it comes to ethics and integrity, everything is important — including (and especially) the small stuff.

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Know What Cannot be Compromised

Every business owner knows that there are some aspects of work that are discretionary and other aspects that must be followed exactly.

Discretionary areas of business are those situations where you and your employees have room to maneuver, compromise, bargain, and make deals as long as they are within certain pre-established boundaries.

Nondiscretionary areas are topics or situations with very specific rules and regulations that must be followed exactly as written and expected. Compromise or deviation are un- acceptable in these areas.

Safety is one nondiscretionary area that immediately comes to mind. ere are certain safety procedures that MUST be followed according to specific guidelines. Any exceptions to the rules could pose danger to workers. However, there are other areas where your employees may not have quite as clear of an understanding of what is ethically correct and what is not.

To act ethically, it is vitally important that you, as a leader, understand what actions fall into each area — discretionary or nondiscretionary. It is also important that you pass this understanding on to all team members as well as everyone else in the organization.

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Different organizations and businesses provide different guidelines on operational latitude. ese differences may be due to the responsibilities that employees have in performing certain jobs; or the job requirements themselves may permit only a certain procedure.

Universal Norms

However, there are several areas where zero tolerance for violations is allowed regardless of the organization. These universally accepted norms include:

• Laws and regulations • Public and employee safety • Truthfulness and accuracy of records and statements.

Stop and think about what would happen if you did not obey laws and regulations. In addition, most safety rules were created because injuries occurred or obvious danger existed in workplaces. Finally, business is based on trust and truth- fulness. If records and statements are not accurate, trust is lost.

Company-Specific Standards

Businesses may add specific policies and procedures they wish to enforce for the well-being of the company or to simply differentiate their company from competitors. In all cases, ethics simply cannot be compromised. As a leader, you must set the example to ensure that team members know what the ethical boundaries are.

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As a leader, you may be faced with a situation where an employee proposes an action or solution that you believe is not ethical or is outright wrong. What do you do? What do you tell the employee?

You may be tempted to do what is asked because you know the person or you feel obligated for some other reason. In any event, fight the temptation. Take a stand and say “NO,” but say it with tact and respect.

Do not accuse the other person of being unethical. Instead, use “I” statements to describe your feelings. State your objec- tion and concern without indicting them.

Here is how:

• I have serious concerns about that, and I need your understanding … • I honestly believe it is wrong because … • I cannot do what I feel is wrong …

Propose an alternate action that you feel is ethical.

• I think I know what you want to accomplish, and I feel there is a better way to do it. How about …

Ask for the person’s help and agreement.

• I really need your help. • I want to make sure we both do the right thing. • Will you go along with me on this one?

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Here are some words of wisdom from well-known individuals about this topic:

“Keep true, never be ashamed of doing right, decide on what you think is right, and stick to it.”

— George Elliot

“If you do not stand for something, you will fall for anything.” — Multiple sources

“To know what is right and not do it is the worst cowardice.” — Confucius

“Honesty is the cornerstone of all success, without which confidence and ability to perform cease to exist.” — Mary Kay Ash

“It is not who is right, but what is right, that is of importance.” — omas H. Huxley

Acting ethically sets an example. Others see your actions. Once the ethical barrier has been breached, others may assume it is appropriate to act unethically and improperly in any situation.

Knowing What is Ethical Takes On More Importance As Business Scandals Make Headlines

Investigations of many high-profile companies accused of unethical conduct show that most had elaborate policies or guidelines on ethics. e company did not break the rules. Instead, it was one or more individuals who did not follow

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the established policies and guidelines. Again, regardless of the code of ethics put into place, a key point to remember is that organizations do not make ethical decisions. Individuals do. A business or organization simply provides the environ- ment for people to act ethically and morally.

To help you determine if your actions are ethical, compare them to these six basic guidelines for ethical business operations.

1. Laws: Laws are created to help society function. Is the action you are considering legal? Do you know the laws governing the activity? In general, ignorance of a law is no excuse for breaking the law.

2. Rules and Procedures: Companies create specific policies and procedures to help ensure success of the business and to avoid problems. How does your planned action compare to what is stated in the company’s policies and procedures?

3. Values: ese social principles help to create society’s laws and a company’s policies and procedures. In turn, laws and policies reinforce the values. One example of values is to ask yourself: “Does the action I am considering follow not only the letter of the law, but also the spirit of the law?” Is your action in agreement with the overall purpose of a law or rule? Or are you attempting to find a loophole?

4. Conscience: is internal sense of right and wrong develops at an early age. Your conscience recognizes certain principles that lead to feelings of guilt if you

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violate the principles. Will your actions make you feel guilty? Can you truly justify your actions to yourself?

5. Promises: Business is based upon trust. It is the belief that you will deliver on what you say you will do. Will your actions live up to the commitment that you made to the other person (customer, client, supplier, employee, and employer) in the business relationship? Will your action build more trust?

6. Heroes: Every person has at least one individual who is a role model in some way. A hero may be a parent, teacher, coach, mentor or friend. Is your action something that your hero would do in the same situation? How would your hero act?

Using these six guidelines, along with the other information contained in this section, will help you in your decision making and ensure that your actions are legal, ethical, and follow your organization’s standards and procedures.

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Chapter 9

Time Management and Delegation

Planning can help ensure that you focus your time and efforts on tasks critical to your goals instead

of on tasks that have little to no effect on the desired outcomes.

Time Management

Perhaps one of the biggest challenges you will have as a leader is to manage your time effectively. You will be pulled in several directions on a daily basis, typically all at the same time. Between the office requirements, your team needs, and the organizational demands, you will be hard-pressed to get everything done.

Effective time-management skills can help you deal with the day-to-day demands and help lower stress, which is an important supervisory consideration as you make your lead- ership transition. In this section, we will discuss what time management means and offer several practical tools that can help you to better manage your time and perhaps even manage your life.

Prioritization

Prioritization is an essential task needed to make the best use of your team’s efforts.

It is more important when time is limited and demands are unlimited.

With good prioritization, you can bring order to chaos, reduce stress, and complete essential tasks.

Prioritization based on project value or profitability is the most commonly used.

Time constraints are important when other people are depend- ing on you to complete a task.

Pressure from other sources to complete a job generally ranks higher over other tasks.

General Tips and Techniques for Improving Your Time Management

• Clear your desk and plan your activities for the next day.

• First, list your time-specific items, such as meetings, and then write down the tasks you have to complete.

• Once you have prioritized your tasks, make a “to do” list and work through the items in order of priority.

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• Ensure that you have given yourself sufficient time to complete your to do list, taking into account your daily interruptions.

• Complete difficult jobs first, when you are at your best. Attend to minor jobs when you are tired.

• Set deadlines for all jobs and stick to them. A task should take only the time set aside for it.

• Do not postpone important matters that are unpleasant. Jobs rarely get more pleasant by being postponed. Do them now!

• Try to arrange set times for routine jobs such as going through the mail, talking with your manager or staff, computer input, etc.

• Try to set up times when you are not to be disturbed for anything other than emergency purposes.

• Plan your telephone calls. Make a brief note of what you want to say and what you want to find out. It saves time later.

• If you have several phone calls to make, make them all in the same pre-allotted time frame.

• When you start a job, try to finish it without interruptions. If you have to finish it later, you will lose time picking up where you le off.

• Arrange your breaks at times when you cannot work effectively.

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• Plan some time for discussing routine matters with your colleagues. en you avoid interrupting each other all the time.

• Learn to say “No.” Get used to asking yourself, “Am I the right person for this job?”

• Monitor how you use your time and make conscious changes to your behavior.

• Stress and fatigue are rarely caused by the things you have done, but by the thought of what you have not done!

• Make it a habit to finish the most important job of the day before you go home.

How Planning Helps You to Use Your Time Effectively

Planning can be considered an investment in efficiency and success. Planning is the process by which you work out what you want to achieve, and then think through the who, what, when, where, why and how achieving that goal in the most effective way possible.

Planning can help ensure that you focus your time and efforts on tasks critical to your goals instead of on tasks that have little to no effect on the desired outcomes.

Planning can be broken down into two main categories: personal planning, which is best done by setting goals, and project planning, which is best achieved by a formalized application of the planning process.

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Goal setting is a formal process of setting personal targets in a number of areas. e process of setting goals on a routine basis helps you decide what you want to achieve with your time and then establish precise personal strategies for achieving this.

Setting goals has the additional benefit of raising your self- confidence by allowing you to recognize your ability and competence when you achieve your goal.

To-do lists are simply a way of organizing your day effectively by ranking tasks in order of importance. ey are lists of tasks relevant to the daily goals that could encompass specific targets you have for the day or simply the efficient use of your time.

Even though to-do lists are simple by nature, they can be powerful when used to organize your day, which will help reduce your levels of stress.

Problems oen can seem too large or you may simply feel overloaded with the number of demands on your time. is can leave you feeling hopeless and lost. e solution is oen as simple as writing each task down and then breaking it into smaller subtasks. If still too large, break it down again. Then prioritize all of the tasks and subtasks by order of importance. By doing this, it will allow you to separate those truly important jobs from those trivial, everyday tasks, thereby giving you more control over your day and reducing stress.

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Delegation

Delegation involves passing responsibility for the completion of work to other people. is section examines the reasons why you should delegate, how to delegate, what happens when you fail to delegate, and what should not be delegated. Delegation is useful for the following reasons:

• Once people learn how to work with you, and learn what you do, they can take responsibility for jobs you do not have time to do.

• It allows you to develop people to look aer routine tasks that are not cost-effective for you to do.

• It transfers work to people whose skills in a particular area may be better than yours, thereby saving time and unnecessary effort.

• Transferring responsibility develops your staff and can increase their job satisfaction.

Your goal as a manager should be to let your staff carry out those routine activities that normally take up most of your day. is will leave you time to do those more important tasks critical to your organization’s success.

How to Delegate

e following points may help you in delegating jobs:

• Deciding what to delegate: One way of deciding what to delegate is to create a list of everything that you do. en rate each item according to the order of

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importance, the time it takes to accomplish each, and the return on investment for your time. ose tasks ranked the lowest in each category should then become the items that you begin to delegate.

• Select capable, willing people to carry out jobs: How far down the line you delegate jobs will depend on the ability, experience and reliability of your people. Good people will be able to carry out large jobs with no intervention needed. Inexperienced or unreliable people will need close supervision, coaching, and mentoring to help improve their abilities to carry out larger and more important tasks in the future.

• Delegate complete jobs: It is much more satisfying to work on a task as a whole than to simply be delegated fragments of it. is helps ensure completeness of the job as well as continued pride and responsibility for the person to whom you delegated the task.

• Explain why the job is important and what the expected outcomes are: When you delegate a job, explain how it fits into the overall picture of what you are trying to achieve. Ensure that you effectively communicate:

¤ e importance of the job ¤ e results that are expected ¤ e constraints within which the job must be performed ¤ e deadlines for completion ¤ Dates when you want progress updates

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• en let go: Once you have decided to delegate a task, let the person you delegated the task to get on with it. Check in with them periodically, but do not constantly look over their shoulders. Recognize and accept the fact that they may know a better way of doing something than you do. If they make a mistake, that is okay as long as it was not because of poor work practices or simply not doing the job. Mistakes are a great way for them to learn and grow.

• Help and coach when requested: It is important to support your subordinates when they are having difficulties, but do not do the job for them. If you do, then they will not develop the confidence to do the job themselves. Simply offer suggestions when they come to you seeking help.

• Accept only finished work: You have delegated a task in order to take things off your plate. Accepting partially completed jobs will do nothing more than fill your plate again and deny the persons to whom you delegated the task the experience they needed to complete the task.

• Give credit when a job has been completed: Public recognition builds the pride and confidence of the person who carried out the task and sets a standard for other employees to follow.

Despite the many advantages of delegation, some leaders do not delegate. is can be for the following reasons:

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• Lack of time: Delegating jobs takes time. Initially, you will need to invest time in training people to do the tasks you are delegating to them. You also will have to devote time to check on them, monitor their progress, and answer their questions. Ultimately, until they learn how to do the task, it probably will take longer than if you completed the task yourself. However, eventually you will realize a return on the investment of your time when a well-trained staff is able to help out when needed.

Most people will, with time, learn to do jobs correctly.

• Perfectionism—fear of mistakes: Just as you have to develop staff to do jobs without your involvement, you will have to let people make mistakes, and then help correct them. Most people will, with time, learn to do jobs correctly.

• ey enjoy getting their hands dirty: By doing jobs yourself you probably will get them done efficiently. But if doing this job takes work away from your team or takes you away from more important things that you should be doing, then your entire department will suffer. In addition, you will be sending the message that you do not trust them to do anything.

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• Fear of surrendering authority: Whenever you delegate, you surrender some element of authority (but not of responsibility!) is is inevitable. By delegating, however, you get the benefits of having adequate time to do YOUR job well.

• Fear of becoming invisible: When your department is running smoothly, it may appear that you have nothing to do. is is the time for you to think, plan, and improve your department’s process (and possibly even plan your next career move).

• Belief that staffers are not up to the job: Good people oen will underperform if they are bored. Delegation will oen bring the best out in them. People who are not so good will not be effective unless you invest time in them. Even seemingly incompetent people can be effective provided they find their niche. e only people who cannot be delegated to are those with super inflated egos.

It is common for people who are newly promoted to managerial positions to have difficulty delegating. They often have been promoted because they were good at what they were doing in their old job. e temptation then is for them to continue doing their old job instead of trying to learn their new one. is robs their subordinates of the opportunity to learn new tasks and grow their own careers, so avoid this at all costs.

While you should delegate as many tasks as possible, especially those that are not cost-effective for you to carry out, ensure that

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you do not delegate control of your team. Remember that you bear the ultimate responsibility for the success or failure of your team.

Steps in Delegation

Introduce the task Demonstrate clearly what needs to be done Ensure understanding Allocate authority, information, and resources Let go Support and monitor

Introduce the Task

1. Determine tasks to be delegated

• ose tasks you completed prior to assuming your new role • ose tasks your delegatees have more experience with • Routine activities • ose tasks outside the scope of your expertise

2. Determine tasks to retain • Supervision of subordinates • Long-term planning • Tasks only you can do • Assurance of program compliance • Dismissal of employees, performance counseling, etc.

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3. Select the delegatee

• Look at individual strengths and weaknesses • Determine interest areas • Determine need for development of delegatee

Demonstrate Clearly

1. Show examples of previous work 2. Explain objectives 3. Discuss timetable, set deadlines

Ensure Understanding

1. Clear communications 2. Ask for clarification 3. Secure commitment 4. Do not say “no” to them 5. Collaboratively determine methods for follow up

Allocate … Authority, Information, Resources

1. Grant authority to determine process, not desired outcomes 2. Provide access to all information sources 3. Refer delegatee to contact all individuals or specific resources that have assisted previously 4. Provide appropriate training to ensure success

Let go …

1. Communicate delegatee’s authority 2. Step back, let them work

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3. Use constrained access 4. Do not allow for reverse delegation

Support and Monitor 1. Schedule follow-up meetings 2. Review progress 3. Assist, when requested 4. Avoid interference 5. Publicly praise progress and completion 6. Encourage problem solving

Delegation Stressors

Loss of control? If you train your subordinates to do a task the same way you would yourself, then they will be exercising your control on your behalf.

Too much time spent on explaining tasks? e amount of time spent up front can be burdensome. But, continued use of delegation may free you up to complete other tasks and/or gain you some time for yourself to plan and think ahead.

Compromising your own value? By delegating appropriately, your value to the group/organization will grow at a greater rate because you will have more time to do more of the key leadership things.

Consequences of Poor Delegating

• Information and decision making not shared by the group

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• Leaders burn out

• When leaders leave groups, no one has experience to carry on

• Group morale becomes low and people become frustrated and feel powerless

• e knowledge and skills of the group/organization are shared by only a few people

• New members do not find ways to contribute to the work of the group.

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Chapter 10

Leading Change

Communicate on a regular basis, even if there is little to say.

Why Change?

Whether you are talking about re-engineering your business, restructuring your organization, promoting cultural transfor- mation, or keeping pace with your industry, you are talking about change. As you go through change processes, you will learn why change initiatives fail and will become familiar with the challenges of change.

ere are three stages of change leadership: establishing a sense of urgency, putting together the change coalition, and developing the change vision. As you master these skills as a leader, you will have a clear idea of what it takes to initiate the change process in a manner that ensures success.

Change is inevitable, and the rate at which society has been changing has grabbed headlines for many years. Nations around the world are experiencing dramatic shifts in their political, economic and social structures.

Even in our daily lives, we are being inundated with informa- tion from the news media, advertising, and the World Wide Web. e amount of information available to us is staggering. This has led some to believe that we have moved from the Information Age to the Knowledge Age. ey say that because of that, we are so immersed with information, there is a great need to figure out an effective way to filter information that has value from that which is meaningless.

e defining characteristic of the Knowledge Age is perpetual change. Unlike previous transformations, the move to the Knowledge Age is not a period of change followed by stability. It comes packaged with continuous change on an accelerating time cycle. is means that the kinds of knowledge that will serve individuals and our society are constantly evolving.

Consider these facts: One of the key skills of effective leaders is the ability to create and lead change. When change is completed effectively, the organization adapts, learns, and achieves its goals. However, all too oen, change efforts fail because they’re met with resistance and fear. Change can be as minor as relocating to a different office or as major as rapid growth or downsizing.

ese tips and tools will help you prepare for and lead effective change.

1. Create a clear vision. Define where you want to be. Do the necessary work to fully commit to the change.

2. Build a case for change. State where you are now versus where you need to be. Build a compelling case as to

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why change is needed. Change causes stress and dis comfort because of the unknowns that come with it. Build excitement, commitment, and awareness of the need for change. en gather support and gain agreement for your vision of the future.

3. Build a powerful guiding coalition. Identify those people that will help you gain commitment for the change. As a team, brainstorm ideas and formulate strategies on how you will overcome barriers to the change. Plan out those steps necessary to transition through the period of change.

4. Clarify roles. Make sure that each person fully understands their role in the change process and feels appreciated for their contribution.

5. Make sure you have the right players. Select those people who are open to change. Support them with the necessary training and resources.

6. Encourage constant open communication. Communicate your progress to the organization as well as what the next steps are on a regular basis. Feedback needs to occur at all levels: up, down, and laterally.

7. Encourage risk taking and brainstorming. Respect differences and test out new ideas and methods. Keep what works and get rid of what does not.

8. Sustain your belief in the change effort. Believe in the change effort and communicate that belief through your actions and words.

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9. Be prepared for the normal emotional reactions to change. Change can create instability, anxiety, conflict, and fear of the unknown. Lead people through this field of emotions by expressing empathy and using flexible leadership tactics.

10. Celebrate success. Acknowledge short term gains and communicate the successful change efforts.

Resistance to Change

10 Good Reasons Why People Resist Change and the Strategies to Overcome the Resistance 5

1. Surprise: People oen resist change because they have had little time to mentally prepare for it.

• Do not wait until all the decisions have been made before announcing them to an unsuspecting work group.

• Give advance notice and build commitment from the beginning.

• Include employees in the planning phase.

• Prepare and disseminate the vision as early as you can.

2. Self-Doubt: When faced with change, people oen ask, “Can I do this?”, “Do I have the skills?” or “Will I have to start all over again?” Feelings of inadequacy can undermine self-confidence which can lead to people holding on to that which is familiar.

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• Provide additional training to employees.

• Provide opportunities to practice new skills.

• Maintain an open environment for asking questions and receiving feedback.

3. Loss of Control: When people feel they have no power over decisions that affect them, they may become over-controlling in order to grasp something they can control—their refusal to adapt to the change.

• When practical, provide the opportunity for the employees to make choices.

• Involve employees in the change process from the start.

• Provide a continuous flow of information; do not wait until the end.

4. Debilitating Uncertainty: Uncertainty about what changes will bring is an inherent part of the change process. When uncertainty becomes overwhelming, it can cause too much discomfort and become too dangerous to allow for the possibility of change.

• Form a clear and concise vision.

• Build milestones into the schedule. • Leaders must set the example by taking the first steps themselves.

5. Disruption of Routines: With change, known routines and habits are thrown into turmoil, which can cause

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people to make mistakes on tasks they previously performed effortlessly and error-free.

• Do not change what does not need to change.

• Have and publish a change management plan.

• Maintain familiar work surroundings.

• Avoid wild changes that simply symbolize the new way.

6. Loss of Face: People oen infer that accepting changes means accepting that the way things were done in the past was wrong. To avoid looking stupid, people may feel they have to defend the old system. Unfortunately, leaders oen try to sell changes by pointing out the failures of the old methods.

• Listen to the concerns.

• Do not sell the change by making the old system look bad. Simply make the new approach look better.

• Use employee experience and knowledge to develop new and better methods — build upon past success.

7. Increased Workload: Change oen requires more energy, more time—simply more work! e extra work alone can cause resistance.

• Communicate with families if extra work time is involved.

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• Give credit and recognition if additional work time is required.

• Establish a reward system for the contributions, not just the additional time.

• Make certain that expectations match capabilities.

• Provide additional resources when needed.

8. Dangers are Real: Some change may create winners and losers—sometimes people will lose status or even their jobs as a result of the change. People oen ask “how will this change affect me?” and the answer may very well be negative.

• Leaders must be candid and open regarding the dangers associated with the change.

• Do not make false promises.

• If some will be affected negatively, let them know as soon as you can.

• Bad news does not get better with age.

9. Institutional Memory: Past negative experience with similar changes or unresolved issues can fuel resistance. People may ask “Have we not done this (unsuccessfully) before?”

• Listen to your employees, both as individuals and in groups.

• Empathize with differing viewpoints.

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• Provide outs for those unwilling/unable to cope with the new change (e.g. layoff packages, early retirements, transfers, etc.).

10. Personal Disruption: Resistance to change may be the result of things that are not job-related. Changes in the workplace can disrupt family routines or personal plans; people may resist in order to maintain order outside of the workplace.

• Leaders must be sensitive to disruptions caused by the change initiative.

• Develop ways to meet those employee needs previously satisfied by the old ways.

• Work with employee schedules.

• Allow some grieving time for the loss of the past.

Eight Common Errors Associated with Change Initiatives

1. Not establishing a great enough sense of urgency.

2. Not creating a powerful enough guiding coalition.

3. Lack of vision.

4. Undercommunicating the vision.

5. Not removing obstacles to the new vision.

6. Not planning for and creating short-term wins.

7. Declaring victory too soon.

8. Not anchoring changes in the organization’s culture.

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Sustaining Change

Promote a sense of curiosity within the organization. Never be satisfied with the current level of organizational knowledge.

Look and listen for current trends and knowledge. Keep your vision focused forward. Do not use team concepts to make everyone a generalist.

Build on unique skills and encourage learning across the board. Allow people to take a try-it-and-learn approach.

Leaders must look beyond today and reach for tomorrow. By focusing too much effort on today’s customers and their needs, future customers will go unheard and opportunities will be lost.

Look for meta-routines by asking “Why are we doing this? Why are we doing it this way?” Leadership is essential in order to build, nurture, and sustain core capabilities.

Barriers to Effective Change

e Six Barriers to Change

1. No compelling case for change:

• Failing to paint the right picture of the future state

• Poor employee involvement and discussion

• Failing to build up the case for change over time— too rushed

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• Failing to share key data with employees—lack of transparency

2. Not understanding what change is:

• Failing to see change as a journey, not a single event

• Oversimplified view of getting the change out the way

3. Little or no employee involvement:

• Failing to involve employees in feedback sessions

• Failing to involve employee teams in optimizing solutions and developing implementation plans that will work

4. Ownership confusion:

• Failing to clearly establish who is responsible for what and who is making the decisions

5. Ineffective implementation:

• Viewing implementation as the easy part

• Failing to clarify who is coordinating implementation

• An unclear transition plan of roles and responsibilities

• Poor alignment of the senior team around leadership behaviors

• Poor communication leads to confusion about what is happening, and when

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6. Perpetuating “the way we do things here” too long:

• Failing to see the impact of the wider sector or economic environment

• Good times may have masked some less-than- effective management practices

Leading Change

Step 1: Establish a sense of urgency

• Overcome complacency. A compelling need has to be developed and shared. Visible crises catch peoples’ attention and drive up the urgency levels.

• Make a clear case for change, approved at the appropriate level. • Create the right climate for change—lay the groundwork with stakeholders to create an initial sense of involvement and engagement with the challenge.

• Establish an understanding of the time needed, even if it is not fully defined.

• Provide an understanding of the consequences of not changing.

Step 2: Create a guiding coalition

• Power and credibility: To legitimize change (critical mass), ability to reward/confront.

• Pain and sacrifice: Personal stake. Pursue change despite personal needs.

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• Expertise: Informed and intelligent decision making.

• Public/private role: Commitment and ability to support change publicly/meet privately with agents.

• Pitfalls: Avoid those who create mistrust or put their own immediate interests above the greater goal.

• Who is accountable and approves changes?

• Who is responsible as leader of the change process?

• How will stakeholders be involved?

• Clarify the difference between line responsibility and support.

• R.A.C.I.

¤ Who is Responsible? What are they responsible for?

¤ Who is Accountable? Do people understand this?

¤ Who will be Consulted (before decisions are made)?

¤ Who will be Informed (aer decisions are made)?

• Identifying and involving “change champions.”

Step 3: Develop a vision and strategy

Vision: Develop, articulate, and communicate a shared vision of the desired change that is:

• Imaginable — Creates a picture

• Desirable — Appeals to the long-term interest

• Feasible — Realistic and attainable

• Focused — Clearly guides decisions

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• Flexible — Allows for changing conditions

• Communicable — Explained in five minutes.

Step 4: Communicate the vision

• Keep it simple. Lose the jargon. Create verbal pictures.

• Lead by example. Your behavior speaks loudly and clearly.

• 2-Way: Listen and share. Recognize that everything you say and do is part of the communication process.

• Develop a communication plan that includes how and when you will tell people what, and by which medium. Be as open as you can and tell the truth, even if this means saying you do not know or cannot say. Communicate on a regular basis, even if there is little to say. It is much more important to keep the regular channels open than to only say what you need to say when you need to say it. Seek feedback at every opportunity to encourage involvement.

• It is important to build and maintain a project plan for any change project. Include major tasks, deliverables, timeline, who does what, risk assessment, logistical issues, etc. A general project planning process is critical.

Step 5: Empower Employees

• Senior managers are the driving force and must walk the talk.

• Deploy the vision and motivate the masses.

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• Target resistance, measure readiness, and assess existing people/structures.

• Develop, train, reinforce, and support.

• Create a culture of empowerment, trust, and support.

• Set up measurement processes with clear targets.

• Focus on dealing with problems and potential roadblocks.

Step 6: Generate short-term wins

• Plan for and create regular wins.

• Recognize and reward people who facilitate the wins. • When momentum builds, resistance declines.

Step 7: Consolidate Gains

• Use increased credibility to change other systems that do not fit the vision.

• Hire, promote, and develop people who implement the change vision.

• Reinvigorate the process with new projects, themes, and change agents.

Step 8: Anchor new approaches

• May involve turnover.

• Maintain clear focus.

• Cultural change comes last, not first.

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• Embrace and overcome the resistance.

• Respect those who resist.

• Continue reinforcement of the shared vision.

• Reinforce behaviors in others.

• Recognize and take the best of the past with us.

• Celebrate victories as a team.

• Create realistic yet challenging goals and objectives.

• Maintain a strong sense of “we will succeed or fail together.”

–––––––––––– 5 Adapted from James O.B. Keener’s 1999 booklet, 10 Good Reasons Why People Resist Change: And Practical Strategies that Win the Day. Grand River, IW: Grand River Pub.

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Chapter 11

Performance Management

Dealing with problem behavior is one of the greatest challenges you will have in your career.

Identifying and Solving Performance Problems

Managing performance on a day-to-day basis is essential in order to provide your team the leadership that motivates, inspires, and cultivates high-quality performance. Conflicts and problems are common to most teams. Dealing with these issues through problem solving, corrective action, and per- formance counseling will help you achieve the most from your team and subordinates.

Discipline exists when employees follow or fail to follow established policies and procedures. Employees need to know what is expected of them as well as the outcomes of not complying with set expectations. is allows employees to practice self-discipline, or to act accordingly out of self-interest and a desire to meet these standards.

Positive discipline is the act of holding employees accountable in a way that encourages improved performance, learning, and growth. It is not meant to punish unless repeated poor

performance occurs. Supervisors play a crucial role in the positive discipline process. Employees oen take their cues from their supervisor’s actions. If the supervisor fails to emulate what is expected of their employees, the impact of positive discipline will be greatly reduced.

Analyzing and Solving Job-Performance Problems

Dealing with problem behavior is one of the greatest challenges you will have in your career. Many of us will avoid these issues as long as we can and often longer than we should. People can be unique, complex, and unpredictable. A major reason why we avoid dealing with these issues is because we have probably experienced failed attempts to change someone’s behavior in the past and then had to experience the defen- siveness and aggressiveness that oen accompany attempts to deal with performance problems.

One of the main reasons why our attempt to correct poor performance fails is because we do not take the time to identify the root cause of the issue. Reasons for such failures include:

• We oen react according to our biases or assumptions about human nature.

• We act out of emotion and oen become the aggressor instead of the mediator, which in turn, causes employee defensiveness.

• We lay total blame on the employee without taking into account the fact that maybe they just did not understand or did not have the information they

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needed. It could even have been the result of a poor job design.

e good news is that there are techniques available to help us analyze these problems. We now present the steps necessary to analyze and solve job-performance issues.

Problem Analysis—Focus Areas

Employees not doing what they should be doing:

1. What is the performance discrepancy? What is different about what they are doing versus what they should be doing? Why am I upset and what is causing me to feel this way?

2. Is it important? What would happen if I did nothing? Will doing something to resolve the discrepancy lead to worthwhile results or could my actions result in unintended consequences?

3. Is it a skill deficiency? Could the person do the task under stricter requirements or with improved efforts? Are the person’s skills adequate for the desired performance?

4. Have they done it before? Could it be that their skills became rusty and they need to be retrained?

It is a skill deficiency:

1. How oen do employees have to perform this particular task? Have they ever been given feedback on their performance?

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2. Is there a simpler solution? Can I change the job somehow? Could I do something as simple as an informal training to solve the problem?

3. Is the person capable of performing this task? Do they have the mental and physical skills necessary to complete it?

It is not a skill deficiency:

1. What is the consequence of performing as expected? Do the employees’ efforts go unnoticed? Do they perceive that they are being punished for performing as expected? Do the employees even know and understand what their expectations are? What would happen if they performed better?

2. Is nonperformance rewarded? What is the consequence of doing it the present way or not doing it at all? Does this result in punishment or perceived rewards? Am I doing something that actually encourages the present way of doing things?

3. Does performing really matter to them? Are there any favorable outcomes (satisfaction) for performing or undesirable outcomes (counseling) for not performing?

4. Are there obstacles to performing? What prevents this person from performing? Does he/she know what is expected and when? Are there conflicting demands? Does he/she lack the time or authority to do the job? Am I standing in their way?

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What should I do now?

When all meaningful solutions have been identified, the next step is to determine which solution is the best one. Ask your- self which solution addresses the real problem. What is the cost of the solution and is it even feasible to do it that way? What is the ease of implementation? Once you have identified the solution(s) that best aligns with both employee capabilities and organizational goals, make it happen.

Performance Management Steps

Step 1. What is the performance discrepancy?

Behavior is rarely just a random act. It is helpful to think of all behavior as cause-motivated and goal-directed. When dealing with performance problems, think about problems objectively as differences between what people do and what someone wants them to do. Unfortunately we oen take the simplistic view that we have to teach them a lesson or they must change their behaviors.

First, think about what are the indicators of the problem. ese include:

• ey are not doing it the way they are supposed to. • Absenteeism is too high. • e supervisors are not motivated.

It is important to distinguish between a discrepancy and a deficiency. Discrepancies seemingly exist all the time. However, it is important that you resist jumping to conclusions without first determining if it is a true discrepancy or a deficiency.

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Once you determine it is a discrepancy, it is important to identify and understand its nature. What is the real problem? What we oen think is the problem is just the symptom of a problem. Being late or absenteeism is oen a symptom rather than a problem. Clearly, if one is going to spend a lot of time and effort solving a problem, it is critical that the true problem is identified. Be clear on where there is a deviation from a standard. Identify how the problem affects others in the organ- ization. Be clear about who is responsible for the problem.

Be careful not to jump to a solution too quickly. We oen hear a manager say, “We have a training problem.” at is no differ- ent from a doctor saying “we have an aspirin problem.” While that may be the solution, it usually is not the problem. Again, do not jump to conclusions until you have identified the true problem.

Step 2: Is it important?

People perceive things differently (such as long hair, piercings). Ask yourself what the consequence would be if you le the prob- lem alone. Try to calculate the cost or size of the discrepancy.

This involves assessing the consequences of performance discrepancies. Some areas to consider:

• Direct cost, intangible cost, time, material waste, equipment damage, accuracy, accidents, lost business, duplicated effort, extra supervision.

• Does the size of the gap between the actual and desired performance levels warrant any action to take place?

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• What is the cost of eliminating the discrepancy?

If, after taking into consideration all of the above, the best solution is still to do nothing, then drop it. If the consequences of doing nothing are too large, then follow the same steps you did when conducting your problem analysis.

Determine if the deficiency is a result of:

• A skills deficiency • Not using the skill oen enough • Too complex of an issue • Not having what it takes to complete the job • Perception of being punished for desired performance • Rewarding nonperformance • Perception that performing just does not matter • Obstacles to performing

If not, then the deficiency is most likely the result of a failure to perform. You have a job performance issue that must be dealt with accordingly, up to and including discipline. Your next course of action is to conduct a root-cause analysis to determine the reasons for the poor performance. The next section covers steps to take that will help with this determi- nation.

e Disciplinary Action Process

e first step to take when it becomes apparent that a discipli- nary action may be warranted is to conduct a pre-discipline interview. Bear in mind the following:

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• Make the purpose of the meeting—to improve employee performance—clear to all.

• Use the meeting to help the employee identify the problem, develop solutions, and understand that sustained inappropriate behavior will lead to increasingly harsher consequences. Keep the focus of the discussion on the problem, not the employee.

• Conduct the discipline interviews privately and promptly.

Record the results of the session and include the expected changes that must occur—then let the employee review it to ensure they have a clear understanding that doing nothing is not an option.

You must tackle performance problems at once.

Remember that as a leader, your actions as well as your inactions will establish the standards for your team. Taking no action in the face of an obvious performance problem can be worse than taking the wrong action. Allowing poor performance to continue without direct involvement from you to correct the problem sets a new performance standard for that person as well as for other team members. Performance problems must be addressed immediately. It is hard work, but it is required when in a leadership position.

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Performance Counseling

Why Counsel an Employee?

Most performance problems can be resolved through effective communication between supervisors and their employees. A counseling session is an opportunity to clarify expectations and discuss performance problems.

What is the Difference Between Poor Performance and Misconduct? Misconduct is generally a failure to follow a workplace rule. Examples of misconduct include a safety violation, tardiness and absenteeism, insubordination, and falsification.

Poor performance, on the other hand, is simply the failure of an employee to do the job you have identified as acceptable. e acceptable level is usually, but not always, documented in written performance standards and defined in terms of quality, quantity, or timeliness. Although it is normal for poor performance and misconduct to be related, it is important to recognize the difference between the two.

What is Effective Counseling? If, despite taking preventive steps, you find that an employee's performance is still not meeting expectations, the best approach is to meet with the employee to discuss the problem.

Providing an Opportunity to Improve In most cases, counseling sessions will prove effective for resolving poor performance. However, if an employee is still

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working at an unacceptable level even after counseling, it is time to take a more formal approach toward performance improvement.

Depending on the nature of the job and the employee’s experience, this may be as simple as offering them assistance in performing their job. Examples of this include giving them a checklist to work with, pairing them with a more- experienced employee, providing training, or even overseeing their work and helping with constructive feedback. Not every employee will require this type of assistance. However, once assistance is offered, be sure to follow through with it in a timely manner.

Opportunity to Improve

e procedures for providing a formal opportunity to improve include:

1. Notice of a performance problem: Inform the employee in writing that there is a performance problem and let them know of the critical element(s) in which they are failing, what is needed to bring performance up to an acceptable level, what assistance will be provided, and the consequences of failing to improve within a specific time frame.

2. Formal Opportunity to Improve: Employee must bring performance up to an acceptable level in all of the failed areas. Duration of the opportunity period may vary. Be sure to document the employee's progress and to provide any appropriate assistance.

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3. Formal review of employee performance: Employee’s performance is evaluated throughout the opportunity period. en conduct a formal review aer the deadline for improvement is reached.

Deciding What Comes Next

Deciding what comes next depends on the employee’s performance at the conclusion of the opportunity period. If the employee has reached an acceptable level of performance, there is no need for any action except to keep providing feed- back and encouragement. If the employee still is performing unacceptably, you must determine the next steps. Ask yourself the following questions to help determine where you go from here.

What is my responsibility to the employee when there is a performance issue?

As the employee’s supervisor, it is your responsibility to keep an employee regularly informed about their performance, particularly when that assessment is negative. When perform- ance gets to the point where formal action must be taken, follow the guidelines provided in your employee handbook or any other policy or practice established for your organization. If there are none, or you still are not sure, contact your Human Resources Department for help.

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Should I wait for the annual performance appraisal to tell an employee that their performance is unacceptable?

No, you should not wait. In fact, good leaders provide their employees with performance feedback throughout the appraisal cycle, as we discussed in the previous step.

I never counseled an employee before. What kind of information do I need in order to prepare for a counseling meeting?

One of the most important documents you will need is a copy of the employee’s job description. is helps identify those areas where their performance does not align with job expectations. In addition, have a copy of any company policy or work practice that the employee is not in compliance with.

You also will need copies of any notes you may have taken regarding their performance up to that point, prior discus- sions with them concerning their performance, goals you may have set for them, follow-up meetings you had with them, and the outcomes of those meetings, just to name a few.

One of the most important things to remember in taking notes is to date them so they reflect when you met with an employee or when you noted both good and bad performance. When logging poor performance, be sure to note specific examples of what they were doing that failed to meet expectations. Doing so will make it easier for you to explain the performance issue(s) to the employee when you meet with them.

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Effective Counseling Tips

The following are tips to help you prepare for and conduct effective counseling sessions:

• Before counseling, make sure you can clearly define what would constitute acceptable performance.

• Make sure that you conduct the counseling session in a private place.

• Arrange adequate time for the meeting to ensure that both you and the employee have the necessary time for comments.

• Clearly state performance expectations and seek confirmation that the employee understands those expectations.

• Focus on the poor performance, not on the person or their personalities.

• Always maintain a constructive tone of voice along with a calm and professional demeanor.

• Seek cooperation, NOT confrontation.

• Remember that your goal is to improve the employee’s performance, not to win an argument with them.

• Try to end the session on a positive note by emphasizing that your goal is to improve the employee’s performance.

In closing, employees want to know where they stand in terms of performance, both good and bad. As a leader, it is your responsibility to provide regular and meaningful performance

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feedback to all of your employees. If employees are performing well, tell them so they know to continue doing so. On the other hand, they cannot fix it if they do not know it is broken.

If they are not performing according to expectations, tell them so and give them the opportunity to correct things prior to the year-end formal appraisal. Giving performance feed- back takes time, but if you truly care about the well-being of your employees, the return on investment will be more than worth the time you put into letting them know how they are doing.

Maximizing Employee Performance

Getting the most from your employees is at the heart of our definition of leadership. As a leader, you should not be content with the status quo. Instead, you should constantly seek to improve performance through motivation, inspiration, and leading by example.

e Ten Keys to Maximizing Employee Performance

1. Let people know what you expect. If people know what is expected of them, that is what they will do. If they do not know what is expected, they will do something else. Communicate clear and unambiguous performance expectations and hold people accountable for their performance.

2. Be a systems thinker. Remind people that what they do in one area could affect others in multiple areas. If people

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know how their actions affect others, they will try harder to perform well.

3. Keep people informed about current events. Do not assume they can read your mind. If there is something going on that could affect them, let them know. If people do not know, they invent and the human tendency is to assume the negative. A well-timed word on your part will prevent a lot of worry on theirs.

4. Let people own their jobs. Do you remember your first car? Do you remember how you felt about owning it? And do you remember how hard you worked to keep it clean and in good running order? e same holds true for people’s jobs. If people feel like they own their job, they will work harder to polish and preserve it.

5. Establish a culture of feedback. ings typically go wrong only 10 percent of the time, yet we spend 90 percent of our time belaboring those things that went wrong. On the other hand, we probably spend 10 percent of our time talking about the 90 percent of the time we did things well. is is a normal occurrence when providing feedback as well. Spending more time providing feedback about the positive outcomes makes it easier to talk to people about the negatives. Letting people know when they did well does not diminish your authority as a leader in any way. Feedback truly is the breakfast of champions and people who feel like champions act like champions.

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6. Share your power. When we are given power, there is an expectation that we will use it responsibly. People who use power responsibly do not manipulate or intimidate. Instead, they focus on what they can give to others rather than on what they can get. ey share their power, or empower others to help make decisions and provide influence. Like the common parable about casting your bread upon the waters, the return is a thousand fold. ose with whom the power is shared give it back in greater measure and the mutual ability to influence is enhanced. Simply put, power shared is power gained.

7. The coach, not the players, is usually the first to get fired when a sports team performs poorly. And it’s usually the fault of underachieving players, not of the general manager. When a coach fails to motivate employees to provide maximum effort, players will perform only good enough to keep their jobs. e coach then is held accountable for not providing a championship season. So it is in the business world.

8. Money is not always the answer. As with a prized athlete, if you take their pay away, they will not show up for the game. But offering them more does nothing to make them work or play harder either.

9. Treat your people like volunteers. Have you ever noticed how hard volunteers work, how dedicated most of them are, how much time they give to their volunteer organizations? is is usually because others recognize

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and appreciate their skills. Oen volunteers are given important jobs that carry large responsibility. Recogni- tion and opportunity are what drive volunteers. Treat the people who work with you like volunteers and the results will amaze you.

10. What happens while you are there does not matter. It is what happens when you are not there that counts. Build a sense of trust in your employees and they will do what is right all the time.

When an employee’s work output fails to meet performance standards, the leader must discover the reasons why. But what happens when the leader lacks the ability to successfully determine the reasons for such shortcomings?

Inexperienced supervisors probably have the most difficulty in correcting problems that involve underperforming staff members. It is never easy to do so. In fact, it is usually a challenge to manage problems that involve employees rather than lead them to a solution.

Each person has their own attitude, viewpoint, and perspective. As a new or inexperienced supervisor, you are oen dealing with friends or people you have recently worked alongside. at can add to the difficulties of managing employee problems since many employees may not yet recognize you as the boss or may think that you will approach the issue the same as if you were still working in your previous position.

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One of a supervisor’s most important responsibilities is to deal with employees. Managing equipment, products, materials, time, and money are critical. However, the majority of the work in most departments is performed by employees. Learning strategies that will help quickly identify potential problems can give the supervisor a jump-start when develop- ing problem-resolution strategies.

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Chapter 12

The Art of Leadership

Set your team up for success: one of the most frustrating situations for an employee is to be

assigned a task that they do not know how to do.

Teaching and Training

e art of leadership really boils down to learning and practicing people skills. Your ability to interact with your employees on a relational level largely will determine how effective you are in training, teaching, coaching, motivating, mentoring, and inspiring them toward success.

Demonstrate Enthusiasm: In many ways, you set the tone for your employees. If you are unmotivated, expect your employ- ees to be unmotivated as well. Likewise, if you demonstrate enthusiasm for your work, it will carry over to your employees.

Interface with your Employees: It is important that you interact with your employees on a regular basis. A prolonged pattern of not doing so creates the perception that you are a cold, uncaring autocrat rather than the caring, compassionate leader you want to be. Step out from behind that desk periodically and let your employees interact with you face to face.

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Celebrate Accomplishments: Take time out to celebrate accomplishments as a company. When you have asked your employees to go the extra mile to complete a major project, it is not unreasonable for them to expect something in return. is can be as simple as ordering a pizza or as extravagant as organizing an annual holiday party outside of the office. What you do is not as important as recognizing a job well done.

Offer Incentives: With incentives, cash is not always king. Sometimes the best incentives require a little creativity on your part. In addition to offering flextime for employees who demonstrate outstanding service and performance, you can do things like offer theater tickets or restaurant gi certificates to the employee of the month. Part of the fun is creating an atmosphere where your employees do not know what their reward will be until they have achieved their goal.

Treat your Employees with Kindness: Showing kindness and understanding will go a long way to motivate your employees to help you achieve your goals. While unplanned events such as sick kids or other personal crises can interfere with the workplace, no matter how many problems these occurrences cause for you, they have created more problems for your employees. As much as possible, try to give your employees the time they need to care for their families. You will end up with happier employees who are more likely to go the extra mile for you when you need it most.

Listen: Above all else, listen to what your employees have to say and let them know how much you value their input. e loyalty it inspires in your employees will make it well worth your while.

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Train and Teach

One of the most frustrating situations for an employee is to be assigned a task that they do not know how to do. Set your team up for success by ensuring that all are trained and ready to do their jobs.

Do you remember your first day on a job? Were you confident about this new experience or were you anxious and perhaps apprehensive? Most people starting a new job would admit to being nervous as well as being concerned about perform- ing their duties up to their employer's standards and being accepted by other employees. Supervisors often neglect to adequately give orientation and train new employees. ey assume the new employees understand what needs to be done or will catch on quickly.

Employee orientation and training programs are the most important things you will ever do for an employee. First impressions last a lifetime. But when you welcome an employee to your company by spending the time necessary to help them overcome their initial concerns and anxieties, it will make them feel a part of the team. That will increase worker pro- ductivity, decrease confusion, and increase satisfaction for both employer and employee.

e orientation of a new employee can involve several people, even though one person has overall responsibility. Orientation will change from business to business, but the basics that should be discussed with the new employee include the organization’s

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values and the business’s characteristics (layout of facilities, other employees, history, mission, goals, and role of employee).

This kind of information provides the big picture of the business to the new employee. Personnel policies, disciplinary actions, work schedules, safety rules, and use of equipment also need to be covered. New employees are always interested in their benefits. Cover items such as pay, pay days, vacation, sick leave, and other benefits. Give them a copy of your employee handbook containing these and other policies to ensure that they are clear about company expectations.

Discuss specific job responsibilities the new employee will be assigned along with how their job relates to other work performed in the business. Finally, be sure to introduce the new employee to other employees.

Answer all of the new employee’s immediate questions. It is important to develop open, two-way lines of communication between the employer and employee right from the begin- ning. Consider the time spent for orientation as an investment for both you and the employee. Clear, well-defined expectations will pay dividends in the future and reduce possible misunder- standings between employer and employee.

Training

Do you expect your new employees to already be trained when they show up for their first day on the job? Too oen supervisors hope for a “ready-to-hit-the-ground-running” employee. It is unrealistic to believe that all new employees

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have the needed abilities and skills to do the required tasks up to your standards.

The first thing you will need to do is to conduct a skills analysis on the new employee to determine what their knowl- edge, skills, and abilities are. is can be done by reviewing their job application or resume, discussing their employment history with them, following up with their references, or watching them work.

Once you determine training needs for the new employee and have a training plan in place, discuss the desired training outcomes with them. Include such factors as speed and accuracy, performance standards and levels deemed satis- factory for completing tasks. If available, give them a copy of the standard operating procedures for each task, which could contain such things as the chronological order for completing the tasks.

e ability to teach the employee a particular skill or task is critical if training goals are to be met. Most find a step-by-step process the most successful in training employees.

Typical Reasons for Employee Training and Development

Training and development can be initiated for a variety of reasons for an employee or group of employees:

• When a performance appraisal indicates performance improvement is needed.

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• To benchmark the status of improvement in a performance improvement effort.

• As part of an overall professional development or succession planning program to help prepare employees for planned changes or roles within the organization.

• To test the operation of a new performance management system.

• When employees have no prior experience operating newly acquired equipment.

• To train on a specific topic.

Typical Topics of Employee Training

Communications:e increasing diversity of today’s workforce brings a wide variety of languages and customs.

Computer skills: Computer skills are becoming a necessity for conducting administrative and office tasks.

Customer service: Increased competition in today’s global marketplace makes it critical that employees understand and meet the needs of customers.

Diversity:Diversity training usually includes explanations on people’s differing perspectives and views, and includes tech- niques on how to respect and value diversity.

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Ethics: Today’s society has increasing expectations about corporate social responsibility. Also, today’s diverse workforce brings a wide variety of values and morals to the workplace.

Human relations:e increased stresses of today’s workplace can cause misunderstandings and conflict. Training can teach people about how to overcome issues such as these and to get along in the workplace.

Quality initiatives: Initiatives such as Total Quality Manage- ment, Quality Circles, Benchmarking, etc., require basic training about quality concepts, guidelines and standards for quality.

Safety: Safety training is critical when working with heavy equipment, new equipment, hazardous chemicals, repetitive activities, etc. It also can be a useful tool for giving practical advice on avoiding assaults.

Sexual harassment: This training usually includes explicit explanations of the organization's policies about sexual harassment, including describing what constitutes inappro- priate behavior.

General Benefits from Employee Training and Development

The reasons for supervisors to conduct employee training include:

• Increased job satisfaction and morale among employees.

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• Increased employee motivation.

• Increased efficiencies in processes, resulting in financial gain.

• Increased capacity to adopt new technologies and methods.

• Increased innovation in strategies and products.

• Reduced employee turnover.

• Enhanced company image (through ethics training, for example).

• Risk management (through sexual harassment and diversity training).

Some Contemporary Principles of Adult Learning

e process of action learning is based on contemporary views of adult learning. Action learning asserts that adults learn best when:

• Working to address a current, real-world problem.

• ey are highly vested in solving the current problem.

• ey actually apply new materials and information.

• ey provide ongoing feedback centered on their experiences.

In addition, adults oen learn best from experience rather than from extensive note taking and memorization.

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To Learn, You Must Be Willing to Grow and to Experience

Learning oen involves new skills and new behaviors. Aer many years of classroom education, it is easy for us to take a course where all we must do is attend each session, take notes, and pass tests. We can complete a master’s degree in Business Administration (MBA) program, but unless we are willing to apply new knowledge, we most likely will end up with an office full of unreferenced textbooks and a head full of data, but little practical knowledge and wisdom. is is not learning. is is simply the art of remembering.

For the learning process to succeed, we must be willing to take risks. If the training or learning does not meet your expectations, let someone know about it as soon as you can. Do not wait until the course is over and nothing can be done about it.

Growth Involves the Entire Learner

If our learning is to be more than just a collection of new information, we must become active participants in the learning experience. Unfortunately, too many development program providers still operate from the assumption that the learner’s personal development does not matter as much as their pro- fessional development. ey separate that out of the training they provide. So we end up getting a great deal of information about specific items such as finance and sales, for example, but very little help with personal development necessities such as stress and time management. en, aer the completion of learning, we enter the hectic world of management, struggle to maintain order and are plagued with self-doubt.

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Feedback is useful in more ways than just telling someone what they do not know or what

they are doing wrong.

True learning involves looking at every aspect of our lives, not just what is in our heads. Teaching people about things like stress management and emotional Intelligence are very important to your overall training and development plans, so make sure you look for programs that incorporate both hard and so skills training.

Growth Requires Seeking Ongoing Feedback

Many of us do not know what we need to learn—we do not know what we do not know. erefore, feedback from others is critical to understanding ourselves and our jobs. Feedback is useful in more ways than just telling someone what they do not know or what they are doing wrong. Feedback also deepens and enriches what we do know and those things we are doing right.

Research indicates that adults learn new information and methods best when they a) actually apply the knowledge and methods, and b) exchange feedback around those experiences. However, we are oen reluctant to seek advice and feedback from others, particularly fellow workers. We are sometimes reluctant to share feedback with others as well.

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e courage to overcome our reluctance and fear is oen the first step toward achieving true growth in our lives and jobs.

Include Learners in Training and Development Planning

Learners are oen the best experts at realizing their own needs for self-development. Therefore, learners should be involved in developing their training and development plan as much as possible. People take more ownership when they feel like they are a part of the process or planning. In addition, professional growth rarely encompasses merely learning new skills and abilities. Self-development, or people skills, are just as important, and sometimes more important than learning how to do a new task.

If Available, Have a Human Resources Representative Play a Major Role

A trained human resources professional can be a major help in employee development. The representative usually has a good understanding of the dynamics of training and develop- ment. They also have a strong working knowledge of the relevant policies and procedures related to training and development. In addition, the representative can be an impartial confidant for the learner.

Provide Ongoing Feedback and Support

Some learners may not feel comfortable asking for help. Even if things seem to be going fine, supervisors still need to check in with the learner regularly to see if there are questions or

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concerns, as well as provide useful feedback. Provide ongoing affirmation and support.

Assessing Employee Learning and Maximizing Feedback

Consider getting feedback from the learner’s peers and subordinates about the learner’s progress. A 360-degree performance review is a powerful practice when carried out with clarity and discretion, and when used correctly. It might be wise to bring in a professional the first time you use this tool to ensure that both you and the employees understand its intent and usefulness.

Coaching and Mentoring

As leaders, we tend to get wrapped up in the day-to-day operations of our organization and do not take time to plan for our own career moves, which could include retirement. We do not take the time to develop someone to replace us.

You need to take a hard look at whether there is someone on your team who could readily assume your leadership role if you are gone on vacation, move to another department, get promoted, or retire. If not, then you should seriously consider mentoring and coaching your employee(s) to get them ready for this potential situation.

Poor or misinformed leaders think that if they train someone to do their jobs, they will become vulnerable to being fired. at is typically not the case. Instead, by building subordinate(s) up so that they can perform in your absence, a win-win situation

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is created for all—for you, your key employees, and the organization.

is is the hallmark of effective leadership—doing what needs to be done even though you are not there to supervise them. Coaching and mentoring is more than just selecting your replacement. It involves bringing out the best in your team members in order to improve performance and create a learn- ing atmosphere within your team.

e Supervisor as a Coach

A good supervisor places a high priority on coaching employ- ees. Good coaching involves working with employees to estab- lish suitable goals, action plans and time lines. e supervisor delegates, and also provides ongoing guidance and support to the employees as they complete their action plans.

Rarely can job goals be established without considering other aspects of an employee’s life. Take time to discuss such things as training, career goals, personal strengths and weaknesses, and so forth. If their career goals include areas for which they have no skills or they aspire to a position for which you know they never will be a viable candidate, be honest with them and let them know that. is can be a hard discussion to have with them, but they will thank you for it later.

e Supervisor as a Mentor

Usually the supervisor understands the organization and the employee’s profession better than the employee does. Conse- quently, the supervisor is in a unique position to give ongoing

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advice to the employee about their job and career. e employee can look to the supervisor as a great resource for direction and guidance. An effective mentor-mentee relationship requires the supervisor to accept the responsibility of mentor- ship and then follow through on it. A good supervisor can be a priceless addition to the career of an employee.

What Mentoring Means

Mentoring encompasses the technical, professional, and personal development of our only source of sustainable corporate advantage—people. A mentor willingly devotes their time, talent, and energy to helping people develop and fulfill their career potential.

e word mentor has roots in e Odyssey of ancient Greek mythology. When Odysseus le Ithaca to fight in the Trojan War, he entrusted Mentor with the care and development of his son Telemachus. Aer the war, Odysseus wandered for ten years, trying to return home. In his search for his father, Telemachus was accompanied by Athena, who assumed the form of Mentor.

Mentor’s wise counsel, tutelage, and guardianship resonate through today’s workplace mentoring practices. Mentoring has become synonymous with the guidance and support offered by a trusted, more experienced adviser—someone who takes an active, influential, yet usually informal interest in guiding a protégé’s progress within the organization’s political culture.

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ink back to your first day at work. Did you wake up that morning wanting to be a poor performer? Was it your ambition to be just average? It is more likely you were motivated to excel, but were not completely sure how to do that. By trial and error, you made sense of the ambiguity and unwritten rules of the real world. Maybe you even had a supervisor with the attitude that, “I had to learn the hard way. So can everyone else.” Hopefully that was not the case and instead you had leaders or more-experienced peers who took the time to share their expertise and show you the ropes.

This type of organization WILL NOT attract people, investors, and customers in today’s business climate.

It is clear that we no longer can afford the sink-or-swim approach. is ruins relationships, imperils dedication, reduces confidence, and wastes resources. is type of organization WILL NOT attract people, investors, and customers in today’s business climate. Instead, becoming an organization that provides for a structured, long-term approach to developing and supporting high-potential achievers opens many doors and attract high performers, committed investors and customers. Mentors support the development of a protégé’s mastery of the following dimensions.

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Manage Knowledge

Mentors can play a pivotal role in ensuring the success of an organization’s strategic learning and development initiatives. By developing mentoring skills, leaders gain credibility by helping people use what they have learned during formal learning activities to develop their long-term career potential. With this support and guidance, people will develop the confidence and commitment they need to achieve individual goals and support organizational goals and strategies. Remem- ber, setbacks and failures can be equally valuable experiences if we learn from them, help others learn from them, and use this knowledge to improve our performance.

Ease Transition to New Responsibilities

Mentors help people with new roles or additional assignments to help them understand the organization’s expectations and to learn the unwritten tricks of the trade for those specific roles or assignments. Mentors also can help people to minimize failure and setbacks by sharing their own experiences and those of others who have faced similar challenges. By taking an active interest in developing their mentees, mentors can help people avoid common pitfalls and develop the values, commitment, and skills they need to succeed.

Networking and Best-Practice Communities

Mentors exchange ideas, stimulate dialogue, and enhance skills by creating a support network of other experienced practitioners and managers. ey share with others what has or has not worked for them.

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Mentors believe in a level playing field for everyone. They recognize that superior performance merits special recognition and reward. ey help people to realize their career aspirations and personal potential by clarifying expectations and presenting realistic, credible career-development options. ey help people assume responsibility for their own development and commit themselves to giving their best performance.

Organized mentoring programs have enhanced individual performance through greater career satisfaction and retention, better decision making, and higher levels of personal commit- ment. Although issues related to employment conditions should be handled through established procedures, culture and practices can and do affect performance. Effective and timely mentoring can help high- potential performers understand what they must do to improve, and the consequences of not doing so. is should be done before performance issues adversely impact their career prospects and before a formal intervention becomes necessary.

Retain and Develop Talent

Mentoring facilitates continuity in management succession and retention of skilled talent by identifying achievers with leadership potential and technical skills. Organized and leadership-focused approaches to mentoring develop the visibility, skills, and all-around capabilities of these high- potential people. ey also provide them the tools they need to assume additional responsibility and to have rewarding careers in the organization.

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Guide

Although mentors may not have all the answers, they can share valuable insights gained through their own experiences to give vision, purpose, direction, focus, and meaning to a protégé’s career development. Mentors also may ask thought-provoking questions and give honest feedback, which will help challenge preconceived assumptions and complacency by the mentee. This helps to stimulate fresh insights and perspectives about organizational, political, or social realities, thereby sharpening a protégé’s critical- thinking, problem-solving, and decision-making skills.

Guardian

By helping them to learn how to discern the risks inherent in any course of action, mentors protect protégés from avoidable corporate and career mistakes. is guidance helps them avoid the rocks and shoals upon which their career advance- ment may be founded. By suggesting alternatives and helping protégés plan their development more effectively, mentors protect the interests of the protégé and the organization.

Advocate

Mentors represent mentees’ interests, introduce them to key people, identify opportunities for them to showcase their talents and capabilities, and share responsibility as well as credit for joint achievements.

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Confidant

Mentors serve as a sounding board for the protégé to confiden- tially test new ideas, share insights, discuss workplace issues or vent frustrations. ey listen with genuine interest, concern, and empathy, exploring and reflecting on issues before offering their own judgements. Most importantly, they build and create a level of trust with the protégé by ensuring confidentiality throughout the mentoring relationship.

Protégé Roles And Responsibilities

Protégés bring their own qualities, views, and talents to mentoring. As the relationship evolves, their perspectives, commitment and passion can make a real difference.

e 16 Laws of Mentoring

1. e Law of Positive Environment: Create a positive environment where potential and motivation are released and options discussed.

2. e Law of Developing Character: Nurture a positive character by helping to develop not just talent, but also a wealth of mental and ethical traits.

3. e Law of Shared Mistakes: Share your failures as well as your successes.

4. e Law of Planned Objectives: Prepare specific goals for your relationship.

5. e Law of Independence: Promote autonomy; make the learner independent of you, not dependent on you.

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6. e Law of Limited Responsibility: Be responsible to them, not for them.

7. e Law of Inspection: Monitor, review, critique, and discuss potential actions. Do not just expect perform- ance without inspection.

8. e Law of Tough Love: e participants acknowledge the need to encourage independence in the learner.

9. e Law of Small Successes: Use a steppingstone process to build on accomplishments and achieve great success.

10. e Law of Direction: It is important to teach by providing options as well as direction.

11. e Laws of Risk: A mentor should be aware that a learner’s failure may reflect back upon him/her. A learner should realize that a mentor’s advice will not always work.

12. e Law of Mutual Protection: Commit to covering each other’s backs. Maintain privacy. Protect integrity, character, and the pearls of wisdom you have shared with one another.

13. e Law of Communication: e mentor and the learner must balance listening and delivering information.

14. e Law of Extended Commitment: e mentoring relationship extends beyond the typical 8-to-5 business day and/or traditional workplace role or position.

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15. e Law of Life Transition: As a mentor, when you help a learner enter the next stage of their life or career, you will enter the next stage of yours as well.

16. e Law of Fun: Make mentoring a wonderful experience. Laugh, smile, and enjoy the process.

Motivating and Inspiring

ink back to the definition of leadership and you see the words “motivate” and “inspire.” How do you do this? What should you do (and not do) with your employees to motivate them?

In this section, we will discuss techniques to motive and inspire employee performance. Much has been written about this subject and by no means is this section all-inclusive. Rather, think of this section as a starting point from which to refine your motivational and inspirational competencies.

We all know people who have inspired us. It might have been a family member, or a historical or religious figure. People who started a small business and built it into a multimillion- dollar empire inspire many of us who own or would like to own our own company. For kids, it might be an imaginary hero from a book or movie. Of course, most of us in America were inspired by the actions of the 9/11 heroes. In thinking along these lines, how can we, as managers, learn to inspire others?

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Start with the examples of those people who inspired you and what you learned from them. Ask yourself how and why they inspired you. Once you have reflected on your own heroes, you can use that to motivate and inspire your team members to become the best they can be. In conclusion, inspire your employees to become the best they can be by practicing the following examples of leadership best practices.

Be A Good Example

“Do as I say, not as I do” is not good advice for managers. Employees always will watch what you do more than they listen to what you say. ey will not only focus on what you do at work, but when not there as well. Do not be hypocritical. Be someone worth following.

Appreciate Your Employees

Everyone likes to be appreciated for the work they do. Employees like to feel as if they are a valued part of the company, which also will help them do their best. Offer public praise and recognize victories oen, and make it authentic.

Share Your Failures

By you being willing to share your failures as well as your successes, others will relate to you much easier and more deeply. ey will understand that they are not the only people with challenges, that success does not come overnight, and it is not without problems.

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Watch What You Say

Watch what you say and how you say it. While we may not intend to come across in a certain way, it is easy to become condescending when relating how you have overcome prob- lems or how you have succeeded (and they did not). is also includes written communication and especially email.

Challenge Your Employees

If you ever had a teacher or a mentor who challenged you, you will understand what this means. ey asked you to go the extra mile and to do your best. It might have been difficult and you probably did not think you could do it, but more oen than not, you made it and were grateful for the push.

Motivate em By Caring, Not Scaring

Fear never should be used as a motivation strategy. It may get you what you want now, but it will come back to haunt you in the future in the form of employee anger, resentment, and lack of enthusiasm and commitment. When employees feel that managers care about them and that they are perceived as respected and valuable members of the organization, they are more cooperative, enthusiastic, and committed to succeed, both in the present and in the future.

Growth and Blossoming of Employee Motivation in the Right Environment

The job of the manager is to create a work environment that gives employees the opportunity to attain their goals and

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experience what they value most in their professional lives. In this environment, communication is open and honest, coaching for success is ongoing, training for performance improvement is continuous, and creative problem-solving is a way of life. Managers also need to provide sincere expressions of recognition, appreciation, and acknowledgement to nourish their employees’ feelings of self-worth.

If you want motivated employees, you need to be motivated yourself.

Walk Your Talk

Modeling the behavior you want from your employees is the most effective way to change their and everyone else’s behavior. If you want your employees to arrive on time, you should be in early. If you want motivated employees, you need to be motivated yourself. Regardless of what it is that you want and expect from your employees, remember, most people never will become motivated or strive to succeed when presented with tasks that you, as a manager, are not committed to on a personal and professional level.

Make Work Fun!

e research is clear. Laughter is not only good for the soul, but for the mind and body as well. Having fun is a basic human need, and when it is met in the workplace, productivity goes up. Appoint a “fun” committee and come up with ways to bring enjoyment into your department.

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Bringing fun into the workplace lowers stress levels and provides opportunities for employees to build rapport with each other, which is the foundation for successful team building.

e Law of Attraction

e law of attraction states that whatever we focus on, we bring it to ourselves. If you focus on the lack of motivation in your employees, you will find more and more examples of it. When you seek to learn more about motivation and create an atmosphere that fosters it, you will find more motivated employees in the workplace.

Ongoing Commitment

Mentoring and caring about your employees is an ongoing process because people are continually growing and changing. As they achieve something they want or value, they then seek to achieve more of the same, to move to that next level. If motivation is not a high priority, you will see the fires in your employees slowly fade and die out.

Strategic Leadership

“e best executive is the one who has the sense enough to pick good men to do what he wants done and self-restraint enough to keep from meddling with them while they do it.” eodore Roosevelt, 26th president of the United States.

Executive leaders guide the achievement of their organi- zational vision by acquiring and allocating resources, directing policy, building consensus, influencing organizational culture,

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and shaping complex and usually ambiguous internal and external environments. Executive leaders lead by example to build effective organizations, grow the next generation of leaders, energize subordinates, seek opportunities to advance organizational goals, and balance personal and professional demands.

Strategic Leadership Challenges

Maintain Your Perspective: Consider the entire organization, not just a particular functional area. Be careful not to become so engaged in the details that you lose your objectivity.

Anticipate and Shape the Future: Know and understand the time frame in which you operate. Engage external stakeholders to shape the future environment.

Stay In Your Lane: Let supervisors and managers run the organization. Your job is to synchronize processes and systems across the organization.

Clear Communications with Key Messages: e vision is your message. Clearly and consistently articulate a few powerful messages that communicate the vision.

Consider Second- and ird-Order Effects of Decisions: Effects have causes. Effects can, and usually do, become causes of other effect(s) and because of this, there can be a large number of cause-and-effect chains created based on a single causal event.

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Final Thoughts

Go out and slay some dragons.

Here ere Be Dragons …

In ancient times, mapmakers did not have a clear and certain view of the world. Instead, they knew only about what the explorers told them was out there. e notes and charts the explorers maintained were used to draw the maps that would be employed by future explorers. On the other side of the known world, these cartographers often would draw sea monsters and dragons to symbolize the unknowns: here there be dragons.

Leadership is about slaying these dragons and turning the unknown into the known. Leaders are people who thrive on tackling change, dealing with uncertainty and complex problems, and truly making the significant differences needed in order to propel others forward into the land of the unknowns: here there be dragons.

It oen has been said that management is concerned with doing things right, whereas leadership is concerned with doing the right things. If that is true, then management is focused on making the map correct whereas leadership is concerned with discovering what else is out there that other explorers missed: here there be dragons.

So, go forth and lead boldly! Never give up, never quit. Never give in to the temptations and revert to the path of least resistance. Instead, go out and slay some dragons. Aer all, that is what leadership is all about: here there be dead dragons.

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References and Selected Bibliography

Abrashoff, D. M. (2002) It’s Your Ship. New York: Warner Books, Inc.

Barber, B. E. (2004). No Excuse Leadership: Lessons from the U.S. Army’s Elite Rangers. Hoboken, New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Canfield, J., M. V. Hansens, M. Rogerson, M. Rutte, and T. Clause Carrison, D., and R. Walsh T. (1996). Chicken Soup for the Soul at Work. Deerfield Beach, FL: Health Communications, Inc.

D. Carrison, and R. Walsh, (1999). Semper Fi: Business Leadership the Marine Corps Way. New York, NY: American Management Association.

Center for Army Leadership (2004). e U.S. Army Leadership Field Manual: Battle-Tested Wisdom for Leadership in Any Organization. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Cohen, W. A. (2001). e Stuff of Heroes: e Eight Universal Laws of Leadership. Athens, GA: Longstreet Press.

Collins, J. (2001) Good to Great: Why some Companies Make the Leap and Others Don’t. New York. HarperCollins Publishers, Inc.

Collins, J. and M. T. Hansen (2011). Great by Choice. HarperCollins Publishing, Inc.

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Connelly, O. (2002). On War and Leadership: e Words of Combat Commanders from Frederick the Great to Norman Schwarzkopf. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

Covey, S. R. (2004). e 8th Habit: From Effectiveness to Greatness. New York, NY: Simon & Schuster, Inc.

Drucker, P. (1966). e Effective Executive. New York: Harper & Row.

Harvard Business Essentials. (2004). Creating Teams with an Edge: e Complete Skill Set to Build Powerful and Influential Teams. Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Publishing Corporation.

Huszczo, G. (2004). Tools for Team Leadership: Delivering the X Factor in Team Excellence. Palo Alto, CA: Davies-Black Publishing.

Kotter, J. P. (1996). Leading Change. Boston MA: Harvard Business School Press.

Lakein, A. (1974). How to Get Control of Your Time and Your Life. New York: Signet, 1974.

Maxwell, J. C. (2004). Developing the Leaders Within You: Workbook. Nashville, TN: omas Nelson, Inc.

Maxwell, J. C. (2005). The 360° Leader: Developing Your Influence from Anywhere. Nashville TN: omas Nelson, Inc.

Maxwell, J. C. (2001). e 17 Indisputable Laws of Teamwork: Embrace em and Empower Your Team. Nashville, TN: omas Nelson, Inc.

Maxwell, J. C. (2000). e 21 Most Powerful Minutes in a Leader’s Day: Revitalize Your Spirit and Empower Your Leadership. Nashville, TN: omas Nelson, Inc.

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McConnell, T. (1974). Group Leadership for Self-Realization. London, England: Mason and Lipscomb Publishers.

McDeilly, M. (2001) Sun Tzu and e Art of Modern Warfare: New York, NY: Oxford University Press, Inc.

McGee-Cooper, A. (1983). Time Management for Unmanageable People. Dallas, TX: Ann McGee-Cooper and Associates.

Nanus, B. (1992). Visionary Leadership. New York, NY: Maxwell Macmillan International Publishing.

Oedekoven, O. O., D. K. Robbins, J. Lavrenz, H. A. Dillon, Jr., & R. Warne. (2015, Revised 2017). Leadership Foundations: A Conversation Regarding the Character, Skills, and Actions for Leaders. Gillette, Wyoming: Peregrine Leadership Institute.

Santamaria, J. A., V. Martino, and E. K. Clemens (2004). e Marine Corps Way: Using Maneuver Warfare to Lead A Winning Organization. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Publishing.

Snair, S. (2004). West Point Leadership Lessons: Duty, Honor and Other Management Principles. Naperville, IL: Sourcebooks, Inc.

Tichy, N. M. (2002). e Cycle of Leadership: How Great Leaders Teach eir Companies to Win. New York, NY: HarperCollins Publishers, Inc.

Welch, J., and S. Welch, (2005) WINNING. New York, NY: HarperCollins Publishers, Inc.

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Meet the Authors

Olin O. Oedekoven, PhD

Dr. Olin Oedekoven has an extensive background in leadership, organizational development, higher education, strategic planning, and institutional evaluation. His undergraduate degree is in Wildlife and Fisheries Management (South Dakota State University), and his first master’s degree is in Wildlife Ecology (University of Wyoming). Olin then worked in state government as a natural resource specialist for 20 years.

Olin continued his formal education with Northcentral Univer- sity, earning an MBA and a PhD in Business Administration with concentrations in Management and Public Administration. He later earned a post-doctoral certification in Human Resource Management. Dr. Oedekoven taught doctoral level students for 10 years, including chairing approximately 40 PhD committees.

Concurrently, Dr. Oedekoven served for nearly 33 years in the U.S. Army Reserves and U.S. Army National Guard. He retired in 2011 as the deputy adjutant general of the Wyoming National Guard, leading an organization that included nearly 3,500 members (civilian and uniformed employees). Brig. Gen. Oedekoven has a master’s degree in Strategic Planning from the U.S. Army War College, and served on several U.S. government councils and committees during his tenure as a general officer.

Dr. Oedekoven founded the Peregrine Leadership Institute in 2003 and Peregrine Academic Services in 2009. e Leadership Institute provides leadership development training, organiza- tional assessment, strategic planning assistance, and executive leadership seminars. Highlights associated with the leadership development services include management training throughout the U.S. with government and private sector organizations, ongoing leadership training in Canada, and leadership devel- opment work in China, Tunisia, Mongolia, Vietnam, India, Ghana, and South Africa.

Peregrine Academic Services provides online assessment and educational services to institutions of higher education throughout the world. Peregrine has also consulted with both governmental and academic institutions and organiza- tions concerning higher education needs, compliance, academic accreditation, assurance of learning, quality, and reform.

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Deborah K. Robbins, SPHR, MPA

Deborah Robbins has an extensive background in human resources, leadership development, HR systems, and strategic planning. Her undergraduate degree is in Personnel Manage- ment and Industrial Relations and she holds a master’s degree in Public Administration. Throughout her years of public service in local government, her focus was on leadership development, general human resource practices, and project management.

Robbins also has extensive experience in the private sector with general human resources, recruiting, and continuous improve- ment processes. She is an adjunct faculty member for the University of Mary in Bismarck, ND, teaching undergraduate and graduate level Human Resources and Diversity courses. Ms. Robbins holds the certification of Senior Professional in Human Resources from the Society of Human Resources in the U.S.

In 2010, Robbins joined Peregrine Leadership Institute, focusing on instructional design, human resource consulting, executive leadership development, and coaching new supervisors. She resides in Gillette, Wyoming.

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John E. Lavrenz, MBA

John had 30-plus years of experience at all organizational levels. He had a comprehensive background in the areas of training and development and extensive experience in the areas of leadership, organizational development, affirmative action, succession planning, HR management, labor relations, and project management.

John had an undergraduate degree in Business Management with a concentration in Organizational Psychology and an MBA with a concentration in Project Management. He served on numerous boards and was instrumental in helping with pro- gram development for several local colleges, where he spent many years working with staff members as well as the exec- utive leadership to build technical education programs.

John served as vice president of the advisory board for a local college where his duties entailed working with city, county, and state leadership and government officials to help build support and funding for the Northwest Wyoming Community College District. He also sat on an advisory board for a local high school

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and was very passionate about his work there, which included student engagement—how to keep students in school.

John retired from his position as director of training from a large mining organization in March 2012, aer spending 34 years there. While there, he helped develop and conduct training for all levels within the organization. is included working closely with various global training providers to develop, and then conduct, training for all 14,000 employees in the organization.

In 2010, John entered into an agreement with a private firm and co-authored a succession-planning program that is being taught throughout the world. He was also jointly responsible for the recruitment and hiring process for the company’s Wyoming mining operations and worked closely with the federal government to set up and manage apprenticeship programs throughout the organization. John oen was called upon to help with conflict resolution both internally and externally.

John joined Peregrine Leadership Institute and Peregrine Academic Services as executive director shortly aer his retire- ment from the mining industry. John oversaw the daily business functions of Peregrine Leadership Institute and conducted executive leadership programs to various clients until his passing in early 2015.

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Peregrine Leadership Institute (PLI) was formed in 2004 as a Limited Liability Company registered in Wyoming, U.S.A. and subsequently as an S-Corp in 2006. The Institute employs experienced leadership consultants who provide consulting services, training workshops, and leadership seminars. Institute’s clients include both private and public sector organizations. Our focus is on values-based leadership, workplace application, and quality. To date (August 2016), the Institute has provided leadership and management development services for over 185 client organizations located throughout the U.S. and in several countries (U.S., Canada, China, Tunisia, Greece, Ghana, Mongolia, and Vietnam). Client organizations include publicly-owned companies, small business, non-profit organizations, and government agencies (federal, state, and local).

e Peregrine Leadership Institute includes professionals with practical, real-world experience. Leadership facilitators have the right combination of professional training, practical experience, and the values-based competency needed to facilitate impactful workshops and seminars and conduct human resource management consulting.

Leadership seminars and team development workshops focus on application and topical areas include strategic planning, executive leadership, coaching and mentoring, character

leadership, workplace compliance, performance management, team development, governance, overcoming conflict, and leading change. e online 360˚ Leadership Assessment service helps participants assess their leadership strengths and oppor- tunities for further development. Our Executive Leadership Program is based on the Baldrige Excellence Framework, designed to develop senior leaders who are able to lead change, grow organizational capacity, evaluate performance, and respond effectively to the uncertain strategic environment.

Peregrine’s Online Leadership Courses for business leadership includes courses focused business writing fundamentals, leadership communications, leadership essentials, leading teams, dealing with workplace conflict, leading change, and leading the leaders. Each course is organized into eight modules with instructional content and post-course assessment. e courses are oen used to supplement an academic specialization in leadership.

For more information, please contact us at:

www.PeregrineLeadership.com 307 685-1555

[email protected]

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A absenteeism, 199–200, 203 action learning, 220 action plans, 140, 225 active listening, 6, 113–14 adrenaline, 132, 142, 146 adult learning, 220 Aer Action Review (AAR), 126 agreement, 11, 65, 70, 160, 162 anger, 30, 44, 63 application forms, 89, 94–95 approach, team-building, 37 assignments, 22–23, 54, 228 assurance, conduct quality, 102 attitudes positive, 19–20, 30, 148 world-class, 81–82 authority, 37, 125, 156, 174–76, 198, 209 delegate, 13 grant, 176

B barriers, 47, 181, 187 to effective change, 6, 187 to effective communication, 112 basis monthly, 99–100 regular, 179, 181, 191, 213 behaviors good, 21–23 past, 79, 106 poor, 21–23 believing, 17–18 board, 51–52, 187, 231 boss, 35–36, 116, 144, 156, 211 business, 94, 105, 152, 155, 158–59, 162–63, 179, 200, 215–16, 233

characteristics, 216 climate, 227 ethics, 149, 151–52, 156 team, 56 vision, 104

C capabilities, 20, 229–30 employee, 199 care, 9, 40, 66, 88, 116–17, 137, 152, 174, 195–96, 208, 214, 224–26, 229, 233 career-development goals, 144 plans, 143, 229 change agents, 192 champions, 190 coalition, 179 conditions, 15 cultural, 192 efforts, 180–82 initiatives, 179, 186 leadership, 179 legitimize, 180, 189 lifestyle, 140 management plan, 184 new, 186 order, 130 organizational, 141 people resist, 182, 193 period of, 180–81 perpetual, 180 planned, 218 process, 179, 181, 183, 190 wild, 184 character, 25, 27, 47, 231–32 choices, 119, 149, 183 bad, 150

Index

civil rights organizations, 93 coach, 163, 172, 210, 225 counsel, 12 collaboration, 67, 103, 125–26 commitments, personal, 229 communicating non-defensively, 120, 122 communication(s), 6, 13, 43, 47, 50, 104, 111–12, 114, 116, 119, 129, 216, 218, 232, 236 business, 149 defensive, 120–21 effective, 111–12, 203 goals, 111 good, 53, 85 problems, 113 competencies, 46, 103, 107 competitiveness, 67 compliance, 6, 100, 156, 206 compromise, 67, 74, 125, 134, 158 conduct code of, 24, 149 criminal record checks, 94 conflict(s) changes cause, 61 constructive, 69 destructive, 69 interpersonal, 68, 120 managed, 67 team, resolving, 67 workplace, 111 conscience, 162 consciousness, stream of, 145 consensus, 42, 54, 70, 72, 74 team, 98 consequences of poor delegating, 177 constraints, 128, 171 time, 125, 166 contributions of others, 14, 88, 117, 181, 185 convictions, 93–94

costs, seek to reduce, 99–100, 128, 174, 199–201 counseling, 203, 207 courage, 13, 15, 28, 38, 223 co-workers, concern with, 61, 65, 106, 151–52, 157 credibility, leaders gain, 228 credit, giving, 15 criminal records, 92, 94 culture organizational, 237 organization’s, 186

D data modeling, cost, 127 net investment cost, 126 ROI, 126–27 decisions bad, 71, 128 employment, 93 final, 36, 57, 76 good, 15, 28 strategic, 77–78 timely, 15, 28 decisiveness, 28 deficiency, 101, 199, 201 degrees, master’s, 221 delegate, 56, 170–72, 174 tasks, 43 delegating, 173–74 jobs, 170–71, 173 leadership styles, 37 delegation, 6, 165, 167, 169–75, 177 deliverables, 42–43, 191 major, 123 development, 48, 102–3, 176, 217, 219, 223, 226–27, 229–30 employee, 223 people, principles, 25, 47 personal, 221, 226

254 | LEADERSHIP ESSENTIALS

plans, 221–23 professional, 218, 221 team, 43 diary approach, 140 directed requirements/tasks, 129 directing leadership style, 35 direction, 22, 48, 226, 230, 232 organization’s, 27 disagreements, 66, 72, 74–75 discipline, positive, 195–96 discretionary areas of business, 158 distancing, 60 diversity, value, 15, 103, 218

E EEOC (Equal Employment Opportunity Commission), 93–94 efforts collective, of leadership, 11–12 leader’s, 40 team’s, 166 work, 123, 130 electronic applications, 86 emotional exchange, 113 emotions, 14, 29, 43, 63, 70–71, 112, 114–15, 182, 196 employee(s) anger, 235 coaching, 225 competent, 17 complaints, 76 criticizing, 21 defensiveness, 196 dismissal of, 175 experience and knowledge, use, 184 handbook, 76, 155, 205, 216 hiring, 94 involvement, 188 learning and maximizing feedback, 224

more-experienced, 204 motivated, 236–37 motivation, increased, 220 orientation, 215 performance, 202, 205 inspire, 233 link to goals, 117 progress, 204 relations/safety, 129 review, 202 safety, 159 senior, 34 training and development, reasons for, 217 turnover, reducing, 220 ethical choices, 6, 149–50 ethics, 151, 155, 157, 159, 161, 219–20 exchange ideas, 98 executive leaders, 237–38 exercise and proper diet, 30, 45, 147–48 expectations high and low, 21–23 organization’s, 228 performance, 152 extra mile, asking for, 214, 235

F failures, 14, 39, 68, 128, 144, 175, 184, 196, 201, 203, 228, 231, 234 feedback critical, 51, 53 exchange, 222 giving, 6, 49, 53, 115-6, 208 negative, 92, 116 people crave, 49 performance, giving, 208 providing, 116, 205, 209 receiving, 6, 115, 117 routine, 53 sessions, 52, 188

INDEX | 255

G goals, 41–42, 44, 46, 48–49, 51–52, 55–57, 59, 65–69, 72, 74, 103–5, 146, 168–70, 206–7, 214 career, 225 common, 42, 68 departmental, 11 organizational, 14, 98, 117, 199, 228, 238 sales, long-range, 102 training, 217 grammar and good spelling, importance of, 86–87 group/organization, 177–78 growth, 38, 195, 221–22, 235 guidance, 22, 57, 70, 154, 226, 228, 230

H helping employees set goals, 21 hiring mistakes, 79, 81 process, 77–78, 86, 91, 94 hiring decisions, 92 bad, 81 human resources, 96, 100, 108

I implementation, 188, 199 incentives, 214 increased workload, 184 inexperienced teams, leading, 36 information, new, adapting to, 15, 221–22 inspection, the law of, 232 inspire, 9, 15, 103, 111, 195, 214, 233–34 individuals, 38 multimillion-dollar empire, 233 inspiring, 7, 233

interview(s), 83, 91–92, 94–97, 142 discipline, 202 pre-discipline, 201 questions, 92, 107–8 schedule, 89 web-based, preliminary, 96 investment, 126, 168, 173, 216 investors, 227 invoices, 100–101

J job(s) candidates, 80 complete, 171 important, 168–69, 210 large, 171 minor, 167 partially completed, 172 people’s, 209 requirements, 86, 88, 159 routine, 167 judgment, 31, 65

L Laws of Mentoring, 231-32 laws, federal, 92, 94 leaders autocratic, 35 compassionate, caring, 213 competent, 33 democratic, 35 effective, 34, 40, 180 good, 206 learning, 13 misinformed, 224 strategic, 37 leadership behaviors, 188 competencies, 103 effective, 10, 225 environment, 49

256 | LEADERSHIP ESSENTIALS

focused approaches, 229 key, 177 position, when in, 202 responsibility, ultimate, 151 roles, 41, 224 skills, 33, 131 styles, 33–35, 37, 39, 41, 43, 45, 47, 49, 51, 53, 55, 57 delegating, 37 transactional, 38–40 transformational, 38 theory, 33 transformational, 38 transition, 165 values, 13 leaders influence, 11 intent, 40 strength, 37 team, 32 leading change, 6, 179, 181, 183, 185, 187, 189, 191 teams, 41 learners, 221, 223, 231–33 learning experience, 37, 221 legal considerations, 95–96 long-term stress, 131, 148 loyalty, 13, 29, 31, 214

M management, 11–12, 39, 45, 100–102, 148, 221, 239 managing, employee problems, 211 MBA, 221 members interview team, 42 selecting team, 84–85 senior team, 34 mental stamina, 30 mentoring, 7, 12, 130, 171, 213,

224–26, 229, 231–33, 237 mentees, 228, 230 mentors exchange ideas, 228 practice, workplace, 226 misconduct vs. poor performance, 203 mission, 12, 28, 38–40, 46, 52, 83, 127, 153, 216 organization’s, 83, 155 purpose, 37 mistakes, 10, 13, 28, 43, 46, 71, 131, 146, 150, 172–73, 184 career, 230 common performance feedback, 115 model, basic ROI, 127 monitor, 48, 72, 83, 100, 130, 168, 177, 232 network performance, 101 morale, organization’s, 26 motivation, 68, 80, 208, 231, 233, 235, 237

N nature, 9, 12, 87, 93, 169, 200, 204 non-defensive, 121 nondiscretionary areas of business, 158 nonperformance, 198, 201

O objectives shared, 11–12 team’s, 84 optimum stress level, 139 organization business plan, 84 effective, 51, 238 empowered, 41 productive, 103 size, 27

INDEX | 257

success, 82, 170 organizational demands, 165 enhancement, 38 strengths, 99 orientation, new employee, 215–16

P performance, 12, 46, 49, 51, 115, 118, 139, 142–43, 196–97, 201, 203–8, 214, 217, 225, 228–29 counseling, 195 discrepancies, 48, 197, 199–201 employee’s, 203, 205, 207 expectations, 207 feedback, 49–50, 206 feedback system, effective, 50 issues, 120, 205–6, 229 management, 7, 195, 197, 199, 201, 203, 205, 207, 209, 211 steps, 199 maximizing employee, 7, 208 organization’s, 144 problems, 196, 199, 202–4 period, evaluation, upcoming, 52 personal attacks, ignore, 72, 120 personalities, 34–35, 207 personnel policies, 216 problems, 81 plans, organization’s, future, 84 poor employee involvement, 187 position requirements, 83–84 positive information, given, effect, 19–20 organizational outcome, 51 Pygmalion, 21–23, 26 thinking, 141, 146 potential candidates, 86–87 power of expectations, 16, 24, 32 pre-employment inquiries, 94

pressure, 36, 131–32, 166 pride, 44, 171–72 principles, 31, 52–53, 162–63 prioritize, 100, 123, 130, 166, 169 problem analysis, 197, 201 behavior, 195–96 problems, real, 199–200 problem solving, 44, 74, 103, 114, 120, 177, 195 process decisions, 42 productivity, worker, increase, 215 products, new, 68, 101–2 programs, manage, 45, 221–22 project management leadership, 6, 123, 125, 127, 129 project sequence, 123, 128–29 project teams, special, 41–42 protégés, 230–31 punishments and rewards, 38–39, 198 Pygmalion effect, 17–18, 20, 24–25, 32 leadership, 16

Q qualifications, an applicant’s, 87– 88, 90, 95 questions, behavior-based, 106–7

R recruiting campaign, 83 efforts, 85 objectives, 84, organization’s, 83 references, 89, 92, 95, 217 regulations, 39, 95, 101–2, 152, 154, 156, 158–59 relax, 96, 134, 137–38, 142 reputation, 19, 29, 77, 80

258 | LEADERSHIP ESSENTIALS

resistance, 6, 148, 180, 182, 186, 192–93, 240 resources, organizational, 150–51 restrictions, hiring, 92–93 resume review, 87, 89 screening, 86 retention, 53, 229 Return on Investment (ROI), 126 reviewing resumes, 86, 89 rewards, 23, 26, 29, 38–40, 82, 103, 143, 214, 229 risks, 39, 114, 181, 191, 221, 230, 232 roadblocks, 56, 192 ROI. See Return on Investment roles, traditional workplace, 232

S selection process, 83, 91–92, 95 self confidence, 34, 37, 46, 146, 169 development, 223 discipline, 14 fulfilling prophecy, 17 senior leaders, 53 sexual harassment, 219–20 skills, 44, 78, 80, 83–85, 88, 103, 178–79, 182, 210, 217, 223, 225, 228–29 computer, 218 deficiency, 197–98, 201 interpersonal, 44 new, 44, 183, 221, 223 person’s, 197 team-based, 32 sleep, 136, 138, 147 smoothing, style, 125 society, 162, 179–80, 219 solving performance problems, 7, 195–96

sound decisions, 31 staff, 25, 97, 103, 105, 167, 170, 173 steps, 38, 42, 67, 72, 76, 115, 127– 30, 175–76, 181, 189–92, 197, 199–201, 206 stress management, 131–33, 135, 137, 139, 141, 143, 145, 147, 222 stress-reduction techniques, 141 supervisor delegates, 225 supervisors, inexperienced, 211 sustaining change, 187

T task assignments, 39 teach, 17, 34, 43, 120, 199, 215, 217, 232 team approach, 57 building, 41, 237 conflicts, resolving, 67 development, stages in, 43 difficulties, 42 effort, 67–68 environment, 66 goals/objectives, 43 interaction, 44 leadership, 41–42, 45, 55 members, 25, 38, 41, 43, 46, 49, 55–57, 67, 69, 74, 85, 96, 158–59, 225, 234 planning, 12 rules, 24, 67, 69 success, 42 teamwork, effective, 41 thoughts, negative, 144–46 time management, 6, 43, 165–67, 169, 171, 173, 175, 177, 221 tips counseling, 207 resolution, 65 time management, 166

INDEX | 259

training, 7, 23, 34, 44, 49, 54, 70, 85, 176, 183, 213, 216–17, 219– 23, 225, 236 truthfulness, 159

V values, organizational, 149, 154 vision organizational, 237 shared, 190, 193 visualize, 31, 135 volunteers, 210–11

W weaknesses, 21, 42, 46–47, 176, 225 who/what/when/where/why elements, 128–29 women, 20, 94 work

assignments, 68, 113 climate surveys, 53 environment, 68, 98, 104, 152, 235 ethics, 87–88 experience, 90 group, 20, 113, 182 make it fun, 236 schedules, 216 surroundings, 184 team, 41–43 unit, ethics, 151 workers, 18, 26, 53, 158 disadvantaged, 19 fellow, 156, 222 workforce, 20, 100, 123, 218–19 workplace conflict, 111 issues, 231 rule, 203

260 | LEADERSHIP ESSENTIALS

LEADERSHIP ESSENTIALS: Practical and Proven Approaches

in Leadership and Supervision by

Olin O. Oedekoven, PhD, John Lavrenz, M.S. Deborah Robbins, M.P.A.

Copyright © 2018 Revised Edition by the Peregrine Leadership Institute, LLC.

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be used or reproduced in any manner whatsoever without written

permission except in the case of brief quotations embodied in critical articles and reviews. For information, write to

Peregrine Leadership Institute Box 741

1001 S. Douglas Hwy., Suite 160 Gillette, WY 82717

ISBN: 978-0-9908279-7-9 (hardcover) ISBN: 978-0-9908279-3-1 (paperback)

ISBN: 978-0-9908279-4-8 (eBook)

Printed in the United States of America

We would like to dedicate this book to John Lavrenz. John was our co-author on the project, colleague and presenter with our leadership development workshops, a mentor to so many leaders over the years, and, most importantly, our friend. His leadership influence is felt throughout in these pages and will continue with all of the lives he touched during his values-based leadership journey. John “walked the talk” as a leader of integrity, and we are all richer for the time we have spent with him.

— Olin O. Oedekoven and Deborah K. Robbins

Contents

Foreword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

Chapter 1 — Understanding Leadership . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 Leadership Defined . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 e Values and Attributes of Leadership . . . . . . . . . . . 13 e Power of Positive Expectations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 e 14 Characteristics of Great Leaders . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

Chapter 2 — Teams, Teamwork, and Leadership Styles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 Leadership Styles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 Leading Teams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 e 6 C’s of Teamwork . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 Seven Keys to Team Leadership . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

Chapter 3 — Conflict in the Workplace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 Dealing with Team Conflict . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 Confronting Difficult Situations with People. . . . . . . . 61 Managing Team Conflict . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66

Chapter 4 — Recruiting and Selecting Your Team . . . . . 77 Hiring for Attitude. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 Why Quality Recruiting and Selection Matters. . . . . . 80 Developing a Recruiting and Selection Strategy . . . . . 82 Reviewing the Resume and Job Application . . . . . . . . 86 Hire the Most Qualified Applicant Using a Fair and Nondiscriminatory Process. . . . . . . . . . . 91 Developing the Interview and Questions . . . . . . . . . . . 96

Chapter 5 — Leadership Communications . . . . . . . . . . 111 Communications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 Active Listening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 Giving and Receiving Feedback. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 Communicating Non-Defensively . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119

Chapter 6 — Project Management Leadership . . . . . . . 123 Project Planning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 Deliberate Decision-Making . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127

Chapter 7 — Stress Management for Leaders . . . . . . . . 131 Managing Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 e 50 Proven Stress Reducers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 Planning to Manage Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139

Chapter 8 — Leadership Ethics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 Ethical Choices. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 Values-based Decision Making . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153 Business Ethics and Compliance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156

Chapter 9 — Time Management and Delegation . . . . . 165 Time Management. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165 Delegation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170

Chapter 10 — Leading Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179 Why Change? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179 Resistance to Change. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182 Barriers to Effective Change. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187 Leading Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189

Chapter 11 — Performance Management . . . . . . . . . . . 195 Identifying and Solving Performance Problems . . . . 195 Performance Counseling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203 Maximizing Employee Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208

Chapter 12 — e Art of Leadership . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213 Teaching and Training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213 Coaching and Mentoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224 Motivating and Inspiring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233 Strategic Leadership . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237

Final oughts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239 References and Selected Bibliograph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241 Meet the Authors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245 Working with Peregrine Leadership Institute. . . . . . . . . . 251 Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253

Foreword

This is not a book that you have in your hands. A book, aer all, is merely a set of written sheets of paper hinged

together on one side to allow readers to flip through and glance casually at each side.

is is an understanding. It is a collective release of leadership tips and techniques as simple as your most basic needs, yet as complex as the nature of the cultural diversities in which you live today. It is a manual on how to live in a world where globalization and technological advances have toppled the walls of traditional leadership hierarchies. It’s a world in which leaders must come to know and understand the evolution of change and how to develop, inspire, and guide their organiza- tions (and their careers) through the tactical challenges coming at them both faster and different than ever before.

Leadership Essentials is a way of understanding how to survive in the ever-changing world of leadership. It is a compilation of many years of experience, of lessons learned along our own leadership journeys.

We lived and breathed every minute of this guide, shedding tears of frustration during those tenuous times and laughing when everything fell into place and we achieved leadership excellence. We held nothing back.

When we decided to put into words all that we have experienced during our leadership upbringings, it made sense to bare it all, to include not only our brief moments of fame, but those oen-staggering moments of shame as well. Aer all, “that which does not kill us only makes us stronger.”

To achieve success in today’s highly complex world of leader- ship, you must be open to the fact that change is inevitable and fast. Nations are experiencing dramatic shifts in their political, economic, and social structures. Terms such as demographics and cultural awareness were once nothing more than mandatory inclusions in company handbooks, policies, and procedures. Now, the essence of those genera- tional and cultural differences is driving decision making like never before. One of the key skills of effective leadership is the ability to lead change. Your survival depends on it.

Remember, leaders are made, not born. We made mistakes and so will you. However, your ability to get up, dust yourself off, and put yourself at the front of the pack again and again will set you apart from those individuals who only wish they were leaders. We don’t profess to know everything there is to know about leadership. What we do know, we’ve included in this guide. Read it well and return to it oen. Each chapter contains real lessons learned from real people. is is your first step of a lifelong journey called “leadership.” Good luck and let the journey begin.

10 | LEADERSHIP ESSENTIALS

Chapter 1

Understanding Leadership

Management is about doing things right. You manage things; you lead people.

Leadership Defined

Leadership is the process of influencing others to understand and agree about what needs to be done, how it can be done effectively, and the process of facilitating individual and collective efforts to accomplish the shared objectives.

Influencing — getting people to willingly do what you want them to do. How do leaders influence?

• Communicate (written, verbal, nonverbal) • Set the example • Demonstrate what right looks like

Understand and Agree — giving reasons for why we do what we need to do. How do leaders develop understanding and agreement? We communicate:

• Company goals (bigger picture) • Our mission/vision • Our departmental goals

Done Effectively — e way you want to accomplish what it is that you want to accomplish. How do leaders develop effective- ness? • Setting and maintaining standards • Teaching, coaching, and mentoring for performance

Facilitating Individual and Collective Efforts — Developing interest, will, desire, and ensuring the resources are there for them to do what they need to do. How do leaders facilitate effort? • Give employees a challenge • When they succeed, praise them • Coach/counsel them on how to do it better • Set the example through your behaviors and actions • Provide the resources they need for the mission

Accomplish the Shared Objectives — e goals, objectives, and the vision. How do leaders develop an understanding of the shared objectives? • Communicate, communicate, and communicate! • Team planning and preparing • Assessing aer the project is completed

You manage things; you lead people. Management is about doing things right. Leadership is about doing the right things. Leadership depends on the situation, the work setting, and the nature of the problem. Leadership also shis with time and responsibilities. Leadership and management are not mutually exclusive activities.

12 | LEADERSHIP ESSENTIALS

You do not have to have subordinates to be a leader—being a leader means striving to BE, KNOW, and DO what is right, all the time. We will, however, make mistakes. How we deal with those mistakes is what distinguishes us as a learning leader.

The Values and Attributes of Leadership

ere are seven essential values and seven critical attributes of leadership.

Leadership Values

Integrity: Demonstrating the courage necessary to support your leadership values and those of the organization; exemplifying your values at all times; treating others fairly and consistently; choosing the harder right over the easier wrong; doing the right things, not just doing things right. is leadership value is essential. If you do not display integrity in your behavior at all times, you may not have the opportunity to recover.

Honesty: Being honest in all your communications, interactions with others, and with yourself; saying what you mean and meaning what you say.

Loyalty: Fulfilling your obligations to your team, peers, and superiors; being loyal to your team and organization with support on and off the job; remaining faithful and steadfast to your values; and holding what others say in trust.

Accountability: Being accountable for all your actions and the results; remembering that while you can delegate author- ity, you can never delegate responsibility—you, as the leader,

UNDERSTANDING LEADERSHIP | 13

are always responsible for the successes and failures of your team, acknowledging the contributions of others, and assum- ing the responsibility even when others will not.

Respect: Treating them with respect; treating others fairly and consistently; giving away respect and not making others have to earn your respect; respecting, acknowledging, and publicly recognizing the contributions of others.

Trust: Being approachable, acknowledging, considerate, accepting, and respectful; building trust within your team through open and honest communications; demonstrating compassion and understanding toward others.

Selflessness: Being a leader who gives credit where credit is due; helping others with the mundane tasks, making a sincere and honest effort to examine problems and issues from the perspective of others; putting the needs of others before your own; promoting the interests of the team and the organization ahead of your own.

Seven Key Leadership Attributes

Self-Discipline: Maintaining self-control over your emotions, temper, and language; following through with what you say you will do; choosing the best course of action that will support the organizational goals; maintaining your enthusiasm and spirit even when the situation is difficult.

Initiative: Seeing what needs to be done and doing it without having to be told what to do; encouraging others to participate

14 | LEADERSHIP ESSENTIALS

and promoting their ideas; giving credit where credit is due; conducting both formal and informal assessments for all work that has been completed to help foster continuous improve- ment in the workplace.

Confidence: Exercising good judgment with people and the work that needs to be done; maintaining your perspective of the bigger picture and the goals of the organization; acting with courage during the difficult times.

Decisive: Making sound, timely decisions and communicating them clearly and concisely; not withholding decisions that you should be making; remaining steadfast with your decisions, but being open to adapting to new information or changed conditions; not yielding to impulses, but rather examining problems logically and systematically without prejudice or bias.

Valuing Diversity: Respecting cultural differences; maintain- ing cultural awareness; appreciating the value of diversity and the benefits it brings to an organization; being mindful and respectful of differences in the workplace and understanding what it takes to motivate, inspire, and lead the cultural and generational differences in the organization.

Empowering: Enabling others to make decisions on their own by giving them an understanding of your intent, along with all information needed to make good decisions on their own; not micromanaging the work; encouraging others to take the initiative; promoting others’ ideas and giving credit where

UNDERSTANDING LEADERSHIP | 15

credit is due; and recognizing and rewarding the achievement of others.

Humility: Recognizing that it is not about you—it is about the success of your team and the organization; looking outward to attribute success and looking inward to apportion failure; and maintaining your sense of humor—always taking the work seriously, but not taking yourself too seriously.

The Power of Positive Expectation1

e concept of Pygmalion Leadership has its roots in ancient Greek mythology. It says that your employees will rise only to the level that you expect them to reach. at is, what you expect of your employees will have a direct bearing on their performance’s outcome.

If you believe that a person will succeed and the person knows this expectation, most people will rise to the level you expect from them.

Your expectations will drive team performance. If you believe that a person will fail, most likely they will believe it as well (and fail). But if you believe that a person will succeed and the person knows this, most people will rise to the level you expect from them.

16 | LEADERSHIP ESSENTIALS

e Self-Fulfilling Prophecy

People have an extraordinary influence on others—and oen don’t know it. Psychologists have demonstrated that the power of expectation alone can influence others’ behavior. The phenomenon has been called the “self-fulfilling prophecy” or the “Pygmalion Effect.” People sometimes become what others expect them to become. Many supervisors are able to develop competent employees and stimulate their performance.

• What is their secret?

• How is the successful supervisor different from the unsuccessful ones, the ones who cannot develop their employees?

• What are the implications of this for the growing problem of turnover and disillusionment among promising employees?

e self-fulfilling prophecy shows how it can either be a useful or a destructive tool in the supervisors’ hands.

e Pygmalion Effect

All it takes is really believing. Supervisors can create better employees by simply believing in them. is is even truer when working with underachievers.

If you tell a grammar school classroom teacher that a child is bright, the teacher will be more supportive, teach more difficult material, allow more time to answer questions, and provide more feedback to that child. e child receiving this attention and basking in the teacher’s beliefs learns more and

UNDERSTANDING LEADERSHIP | 17

is better in school. It does not matter whether the child is actually bright. All that matters is that the teacher believes in the child. is is also true of managers and workers.

is uniquely human phenomenon is called the Pygmalion Effect. It is a persistently held belief in another person such that the belief becomes a reality. e person believed in, becomes the person they are perceived to be.

Did you ever notice that there are some people with whom we naturally feel comfortable: those who think our ideas are great? When they listen to us, we express ourselves clearly and are able to make ideas ring with clarity and insight. This is because they, believing we are bright, see us in this light. We, in turn, knowing how they feel about us, work hard to make sure they are satisfied with our answers.

e opposite is also true. ere are people with whom we are not comfortable and whom we believe do not like us. We avoid these people and do not do our best when we are around them. We are hesitant and much less articulate. Most of the time, we are less likely to try very hard to be understood. We become victims of a label that someone gave us.

This is also true in the supervisor/employee relationship. Researchers looked at twelve separate research studies from different work settings involving a total of 2,874 participants and using a technique called meta-analysis. All studies involved employees and their supervisors. Each study randomly assigned employees to two groups, and supervisors were told that one group of employees had considerably greater potential than

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the other. us, supervisors developed a positive attitude about one group of employees who were basically no different than the employees in the other group.

Employees in the positive-information group responded with greater productivity with only two exceptions. e magnitude of these gains seemed to be dependent on the circumstances of the work relationship. The greatest gains were seen in military training settings. The researchers suspect this is because in the military, it is easier to control the information supervisors receive, whereas in a business situation, word-of- mouth and reputation may bleed into the situation, making less believable the positive information received by the supervisor.

However, when looking at findings in elementary school settings, there seems to be something that happens in a learning situation that is different from what happens in a work situation. It is possible that a positive attitude on the part of supervisors may have a greater effect on learning than it does on work productivity.

e second-greatest gains were obtained in situations where disadvantaged workers (those who were less likely to be success- ful) were randomly assigned to two groups. e group for which the supervisor was given positive information made significant gains over the group for which the supervisor was not given positive information.

It is suspected that people with low self-esteem and self-efficacy are more likely to respond to positive feedback. is indicates that supervisors have the potential to create high-performing

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employees. All that is needed is for them to believe that an employee has potential. is is probably because the employee is more fully engaged and motivated when working for a positive-thinking supervisor, thereby allowing the organization to tap into their full capabilities.

ere were fewer gains noted when supervisors had less direct interaction with subordinates, such as in sales situations where employees worked independently and away from their supervisor. In addition, women supervisors were less likely to be affected by the Pygmalion Effect. It was observed that women, regardless of their beliefs, seemed to treat employees equally. erefore, the group of employees about whom a woman supervisor was given positive information made less significant gains over the other group. This was even more pronounced when the supervisor and all the employees were women.

The Pygmalion Effect is an important key to creating or improving a workforce. It believes in your employee’s capabiltiy to achieve goals. Everything should be done to create a highly positive attitude about employees in the minds of supervisors, and employees should be made to feel that their supervisors and the organization believe in their potential as people.

Leaders should present new employees to supervisors in a positive light while highlighting the new employee’s potential, and making sure that the supervisor and the work group have a clear expectation that the new employee will make a significant impact on the group’s ability to succeed. Supervisors should

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be trained in how to impart a positive, motivating attitude that fosters a belief in the employee’s ability to perform.

Employees should have a clear understanding that there is no question of them performing well. Employees should be given training opportunities that bring out potential rather than focus on weaknesses. Overall, the organization should strive to create an understanding among its employees that they all have potential and all that is needed is for that potential to be brought out.

Climate

Negative Pygmalion

Poor behaviors that communicate low expectations include: • Being distracted, in a hurry, or not giving an employee your full attention

• Verbally criticizing an employee’s competence or potential

• Negative nonverbal cues through tone of voice, or face and body gestures

Positive Pygmalion

Good behaviors that communicate high expectations include:

• Being verbally supportive and encouraging

• Providing positive nonverbal cues through tone of voice, eye contact, facial expressions, body posture, and movements

• Helping employees set challenging goals

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Input

Negative Pygmalion

Poor behaviors that communicate low expectations include:

• Not giving people vital information to do a job

• Not giving people sufficient direction or guidance

• Waiting too long to check on progress or provide any needed course correction

• Treating people like they are incompetent by providing only limited or sketchy information (only on a “need to know” basis)

Positive Pygmalion

Good behaviors that communicate high expectations include:

• Spending extra time with people

• Providing ideas to follow up on or sources for further information (giving team members enough resources or ideas while allowing them to retain autonomy and ownership of projects)

Output Negative Pygmalion

Poor behaviors that communicate low expectations include:

• Cutting people off when they are speaking

• Not seeking their opinions or insights

• Limiting the number and scope of their work assignments

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Positive Pygmalion

Good behaviors that communicate high expectations include:

• Allowing them to express their opinions and ideas (even disagreeing opinions)

• Giving them new assignments (or a variety of assignments, including incrementally challenging assignments)

• Giving them opportunities to learn or practice skills (e.g., training, projects)

• Allowing them to gain exposure to, and visibility with, other people and departments (especially upward in the organization)

Feedback Negative Pygmalion

Poor behaviors that communicate low expectations include:

• Providing mostly negative, vague, or limited feedback

• Criticizing the person (instead of the behaviors), making negative generalizations (e.g., negative labels)

Positive Pygmalion

Good behaviors that communicate high expectations include: • Providing helpful suggestions on how people might be able to improve or do things better

• Positively reinforcing desirable behaviors (praise, recognition, rewards, etc.). is should be sincere, specific and frequent

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• Making sure any feedback regarding poor performance is done in a positive way, where the employee can sense that you have their best interests at heart and you reinforce your belief in their ability to do better

Expectations A well-defined expectation is the foundation for goal achieve- ment. It formalizes:

• What is to be accomplished • Who will be involved • When the activity will be accomplished • How resources will be used

Expectations should include team values and team rules. Make life easier for yourself—write down the expectations, rules, and your code of conduct, and share these with your team.

S. M. A. R. T. Objectives

Specific Measurable Achievable Realistic Time-Bound

In summary, use the Pygmalion Effect, oen known as the Power of Expectations, by considering:

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• Every supervisor has expectations of the people who report to them.

• Supervisors communicate these expectations consciously or unconsciously.

• People consciously or unconsciously pick up on these expectations from their supervisor.

• People perform in ways that are consistent with the expectations they have picked up on from the supervisor.

The power of expectations enables team members to excel in response to a manager’s message that they are capable of success and expected to succeed. e Pygmalion Effect can also undermine staff performance when the subtle communication from the manager tells them the opposite. ese cues are oen subtle and examples include when a supervisor fails to praise a staff person’s performance as frequently as they praise others or when a supervisor talks less to a particular employee than to others. Principles for People Development Success in developing others is how well you accomplish each of the following:

• Value People: Concerns attitude • Commit to People: Concerns time • Integrity with People: Concerns character • Standard for People: Concerns vision • Influence over People: Concerns leadership

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Successful People Developers are those who:

• Make the right assumptions about people • Ask the right questions of people • Give the right assistance to people

What you believe about yourself influences what you believe about your people. We are measured not by what we are, but by the perception of what we seem to be; not by what we say, but how we are heard; and not by what we do, but how we appear to do it.

Positive Pygmalion Characteristics

• Belief in themselves and confidence in what they are doing.

• Belief in their ability to develop the talents of their employees: to select, train, and motivate them.

• Ability to communicate to workers that their expectations are realistic and achievable.

• Belief that workers can learn to make decisions and to take the initiative.

• Preference for the rewards that come from the success and increased skills of their subordinates over the rewards they get from supervisors.

Everything Rises and Falls on Leadership • Personnel determine the organization’s potential. • Relationships determine the organization’s morale.

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• Structure determines the organization’s size. • Vision determines the organization’s direction. • Leadership determines the organization’ success.

The 14 Characteristics of Great Leaders

1 Integrity: e qualities of absolute honesty, trustworthiness, uprightness of character, and high moral principles. Integrity can be practiced by doing the following:

• Tell the truth to both superiors and subordinates, all the time.

• Stand for what you believe in, even if the belief is unpopular.

• Use your power to work toward your organization’s goals or for the welfare of your coworkers, not for your own personal gain.

2 Knowledge: You will quickly gain the respect and confidence of your employees by showing them you are knowledgeable about your area of responsibility as well as theirs. Keep in mind that learning is a continual process. To develop and demonstrate knowledge you should:

• Ask questions when unsure.

• Notice and correct substandard performance in others, particularly those who work for you.

• Show your employees, by your actions, how they should perform their duties.

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3 Courage: Courage is the quality that acknowledges fear but allows you to meet danger or opposition calmly and with firmness. Courage is developed when you:

• Place duty and commitment to your organization’s mission over personal feelings and desires.

• Look for and willingly accept responsibilities.

• Stand for what is right, even if it is unpopular.

• Never blame others for your mistakes.

4 Decisiveness: Decisiveness is the ability to weigh all the facts and make timely decisions. To develop decisiveness, you should:

• Get into the habit of considering several points of view for each problem, and then make your best choice.

• Know when not to make a decision.

• Remember that a good decision now is usually better than a perfect decision later.

• Be willing to adjust your decision if you realize it is no longer effective.

5 Dependability: Leaders are dependable when they fulfil their commitments. Dependability is developed by:

• Being on time and prepared.

• Accomplishing your assigned tasks, even if you face obstacles.

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• Building a reputation for keeping your word when you have made a promise.

• Demonstrating loyalty to your friends and supporters.

6 Initiative: Initiative is recognizing what must be done and then doing it without being told to do so. Practice the following to develop initiative:

• Find tasks that need to be done and then do them without being told.

• Look for better ways to do things.

• Consider strategic issues and look for ways to overcome future obstacles.

7 Tact: Tact is the ability to deal with others without causing ill feelings or offense. In order to develop tact, do the following:

• Apply the Golden Rule: Treat others as you would want to be treated.

• Check yourself for tolerance and patience. If you lack these qualities, make efforts to change.

8 Justice: To be just is to be fair. Personal feelings, emotions, and prejudices must not be allowed to influence your decisions. To improve the trait of justice, make sure you practice the following:

• Apply rewards and reprimands to all consistently.

• Listen to all sides of an issue before making a decision.

• Be aware of your counterproductive prejudices and seek to rid yourself of them.

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9 Enthusiasm: Enthusiasm is showing sincere interest and eagerness in performing your job. To develop enthusiasm in others, you should:

• Consistently exhibit a positive attitude toward others. • Emphasize the employee’s successes.

• Encourage others to overcome any obstacles they encounter.

10 Bearing: Your bearing is your general appearance and conduct. Bearing is demonstrated by:

• Controlling your voice and gestures so that emotional extremes do not show in your actions. Sometimes it is appropriate to show some anger, but you never should appear to lose your temper.

• Not reprimanding anyone in the presence of others.

11 Endurance: Maintaining the physical and mental stamina to perform your job under difficult conditions and for long periods of time. Maintain endurance by doing the following:

• Avoid activities that lower your physical and mental stamina.

• Maintain a proper diet and exercise.

• Finish every job, regardless of the obstacles.

12 Unselfishness: You always should give credit where credit is due. To be unselfish, you should:

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• Give credit to employees for jobs well done and ensure that any recognition or praise from higher levels is passed on to deserving individuals.

• You will be surprised at how much respect you will receive from employees when you help them with some of their tasks.

• Make a sincere, honest attempt to look at situations from the other person’s perspective.

13 Loyalty: Loyalty is the quality of faithfulness to your prin- ciples, your country, organization, superiors, and subordinates. To practice loyalty you should:

• Remember loyalty is a two-way street. Be loyal to those above and below you.

• Stand up for your organization and its members when they are unjustly attacked.

• Discuss your problems with those who can help solve the problems. Do not gossip.

14 Judgment: Judgment is the ability to weigh facts logically, to consider possible solutions, and to reach sound decisions. Judgment includes using common sense. To develop the trait of judgment, you:

• Do not yield to impulse. ink about the possible effects of what you are about to do.

• Try to visualize the situation from the other person’s perspective. When in doubt, seek good counsel from those who can best help you.

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Leadership, the process of influencing others to obtain desired goals, is based on a set of core values

exemplified in through the behaviors and actions of the leader. Leadership means dealing with the

human dimension of the workplace and starts with oneself and extends to the leader’s team.

In the next chapter, we will explore the team-based skills of successful leaders.

–––––––––––– 1 Adapted from The Pygmalion Effect: Managing the Power of Positive Expectations, Participant’s Workbook. (2001). Carlsbad, CA: CRM Learning, L.P.

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Chapter 2

Teams, Teamwork and Leadership Styles

If you are able to use only one leadership style in a given situation, then you are inflexible and will

have difficulty operating in situations where that style does not fit.

Leadership Styles

All people are shaped by what they have seen, what they have learned, and whom they have met. Who you are determines the way you work with other people. Some people are happy and smiling all the time. Others are serious. Some leaders can wade into a room full of strangers and within five minutes have everyone engaged and thinking, “How have I lived so long without meeting this person?”

Some very competent leaders are uncomfortable in social situations. Most of us are somewhere in between. Although leadership theory describes at great length how you should interact with your subordinates and how you must strive to learn and improve your leadership skills, you always must be yourself. Anything else comes across as fake and insincere.

Effective leaders are flexible enough to adjust their leadership style and techniques to the people they lead and the situations they encounter. Some subordinates respond best to coaxing, suggestions, or gentle prodding. Others need, and sometimes even want, the verbal equivalent of a kick in the pants. Treat- ing people fairly does not mean treating them as if they were clones of one another. In fact, if you treat everyone the same way, you probably are being unfair because different people need different things from you.

ink of it this way: Suppose you must teach safety procedures to a large group of employees ranging in experience from new to very experienced. e senior employees know a great deal about the subject while the new employees know very little. To meet all their needs, you must teach the new employees more than you teach the senior employees.

If you train the new employees only on the advanced skills the senior employees need, the new employees will be lost. If you make the senior employees sit through training on the basic tasks the new employees need, you will waste the senior employee’s time. You must match the training (and your leadership) to the experience of those being trained. In the same way, you must adjust your leadership style and techniques to the experience of your people and characteristics of your organization.

Obviously, you would not lead senior team members the same way you would lead new employees. But the easiest distinc- tions to make are those of rank and experience. You must take into account personalities, self-confidence, self-esteem—all

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the elements of the complex mix of character traits that make dealing with people so difficult and so rewarding. One of the many things that makes your job tough is that you must figure out what your subordinates need and what they are able to do in order to get their best performance even when they do not know themselves.

When discussing leadership styles, many people focus on the extremes, autocratic and democratic. Autocratic leaders tell people what to do with no explanations. eir message is, “I am the boss. You will do it because I said so.” Democratic leaders use their personalities to persuade subordinates.

ere are many shades in between. e following paragraphs discuss five of them. However, bear in mind that competent leaders mix different elements of all these styles according to place, task, and people involved.

Using different leadership styles in different situations or elements of different styles in the same situation is not in- consistent. Rather, the opposite is true. If you are able to use only one leadership style in a given situation, then you are inflexible and will have difficulty operating in situations where that style does not fit.

Directing Leadership Style

e directing style is leader-centered. Leaders using this style do not solicit input from their subordinates. ey give detailed instructions on how, when, and where they want a task performed. ey then closely supervise its execution.

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e directing style may be appropriate when time is short and leaders do not have a chance to explain things. ey may simply give orders: Do this; Go there; Move. Leaders may revert to this style in fast-paced operations or in emergency situations, even with experienced subordinates. But if the leader has created a climate of trust, subordinates will assume the leader has switched to the directing style because of the circumstances.

e directing style is also appropriate when leading inexperi- enced teams or individuals who are not yet trained to operate on their own. In this kind of situation, the leader probably will remain close to the action to make sure things go smoothly.

Some people mistakenly believe the directing style means using abusive and demeaning language, or threatening and intimidating others. is is wrong. If you are ever tempted to act this way, whether due to pressure, stress, or what seems like improper behavior by a subordinate, ask yourself: Would I want to work for someone like me? Would I want my boss to see and hear me treat subordinates this way? Would I want to be treated this way?

Participating Leadership Style

e participating style centers on both the leader and team. Given a job to do, leaders ask subordinates for input, infor- mation, and recommendations, but make the final decision on what to do. is style is especially appropriate for leaders who have time for such consultations or who are dealing with experienced subordinates.

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The delegating style involves giving subordinates the authority to solve problems and make decisions without first clearing them through the leader.

e team-building approach lies behind the participating leadership style. When subordinates help to create a plan it becomes, at least in part, their plan. is ownership creates a strong incentive to invest the effort necessary to make the plan work. Asking for this kind of input is a sign of a leader’s strength and self-confidence. But asking for advice does not mean the leader is obligated to follow it. e leader alone is always responsible for the quality of decisions and the outcome of plans.

Delegating Leadership Style

e delegating style involves giving subordinates the authority to solve problems and make decisions without first clearing them through the leader. Leaders with mature and experienced subordinates, or who want to create a learning experience for subordinates, oen need only to give them authority to make decisions along with the necessary resources and a clear understanding of the mission’s purpose. As always, the leader is responsible for what does or does not happen, but in the delegating leadership style, the leader holds subordinate leaders accountable for their actions. is is the style most oen used by managers dealing with senior supervisors, and by organizational and strategic leaders.

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Transformational and Transactional Leadership Styles

ere is a distinction between the transformational leadership style, which focuses on inspiration and change, and the transactional leadership style, which focuses on rewards and punishments. We do not deny that rewards and punishments are effective and sometimes necessary. However, carrots and sticks alone do not inspire individuals to excel.

Transformational Leadership Style

is style transforms subordinates by challenging them to rise above their immediate needs and self-interest. e transfor- mational style is developmental. It emphasizes individual growth (both professional and personal) and organizational enhancement. Key features of the transformational style include empowering and mentally stimulating subordinates.

The transformational leaders consider and motivate team members as individuals first, then the group. To use the transformational style, you must have the courage to commu- nicate your intent and then step back and let your subordinates work. You must also be aware that immediate benefits oen are delayed until the job or task is accomplished.

e transformational style allows you to take advantage of the skills and knowledge of experienced subordinates who may have better ideas on how to accomplish a mission. Leaders who use this style communicate reasons for their decisions or actions, and build a broader understanding and ability to exercise initiative, and operate effectively with subordinates.

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Not all situations lend themselves to this style. It is most effective during periods that call for change or when presenting new opportunities. It also works well when organizations face a crisis, instability, mediocrity, or disenchantment. It may not be effective when subordinates are inexperienced, when the mission allows little deviation from accepted procedures, or when subordinates are not motivated. Leaders who use only the transformational leadership style limit their ability to influence individuals in these and similar situations.

Transactional Leadership Style

In contrast, some leaders employ only the transactional leadership style. is style includes such techniques as:

• Motivating subordinates to work by offering rewards or threatening punishment.

• Prescribing task assignments in writing.

• Outlining all the conditions necessary to complete the task, including the applicable rules and regulations, the benefits of success, and the consequences, which include possible disciplinary actions or failure.

• Management by exception, where leaders focus on their subordinates’ failures, showing up only when something goes wrong.

e leader who relies exclusively on the transactional style, rather than combining it with the transformational style, evokes only short-term commitment from subordinates and discourages risk taking and innovation.

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ere are situations where the transactional style is acceptable, if not preferred. For example, a leader who wants to emphasize safety could reward the organization, if the organization prevents any serious safety-related incidents for a two-month period. In this case, the leader’s intent appears clear. Safe habits are rewarded, but unsafe acts will not be tolerated.

However, using only the transactional style can make the leader’s efforts appear self-serving. In this example, employees might interpret the leader’s attempt to reward safe practices as an effort to look good by focusing on something that is unimportant but has the boss’s attention. Such perceptions can destroy the trust subordinates have in the leader. Using the transactional style alone also can deprive subordinates of opportunities to grow, because it leaves no room for honest mistakes.

The most effective leaders combine techniques from the transformational and transactional leadership styles to fit the situation. A strong base of transactional understanding, supplemented by charisma, inspiration, and individualized concern for each subordinate, produces the most enthusiastic and genuine response. Subordinates will be more committed, creative, and innovative. ey also will be more likely to take calculated risks to accomplish their mission.

Leaders can avoid any misunderstanding of their intent by combining transformational and transactional techniques. ey can explain why safety is important (intellectual stimulation) while, at the same time, encourage their subordinates to take care of each other (individualized concern).

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Leading Teams

Few leadership roles are as important in empowered organiza- tions as team building. Effective teamwork is the foundation of productivity. In this chapter we will explore several important topics concerning team leadership. For the purposes of clarification, when we refer to “team” in team leadership, we mean your day-to-day work team and/or any special project teams that you might be in charge of temporarily.

To get you started, the following are some suggestions for building effective teams. ese concepts will be discussed in more detail throughout this section.

• Allow time for introductions. When the team is formed, allow people to get to know one another, and to clarify roles and goals.

• Show respect for everyone’s points of view at the earliest point possible. Try to discourage dominant behaviors by some team members. Research shows that the earliest moments of a team’s life define how its members will interact thereaer.

• Establish clear communication channels. Model good listening behavior and encourage it in others. Determine how team members will communicate, how problems will be analyzed, how decisions will be made, and how the team’s work will get done.

• Encourage balanced participation early on. To discourage sub-teams from forming, ensure balanced participation and move people around so they interact with everyone else.

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• Constructively manage conflict and team difficulties. Do this as soon as the conflicts occur. Never allow a problem to fester.

• Avoid imposing your own ground rules and processes. Instead, let the team decide collectively on its rules for conduct, meetings, and reaching consensus. Research shows that teams that make their own process decisions come together more quickly and are more productive.

As a supervisor, you will be in charge of a team of employees. Your team may include your regular work team or it may also include a special project team created for a short-term purpose. Whether it is your work team or a project team, there are several fundamental principles of team leadership.

A team is a number of persons associated together in work or activity working toward a common goal. A team can either be made of members selected by a team leader or the team leader may be assigned to an existing team.

e first step towards ensuring a team’s success is to look at the abilities, experiences, strengths, and weaknesses of each potential team member. Interview team members to see what types of tasks they have been assigned in the past and then ask for results associated with each task.

Next, look at your own strengths and weaknesses to see how they align with those of your team. Look at the overall project, goals, deliverables, and/or strategies. Finally, select and assign

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team members based on each member’s abilities and according to project requirements, not necessarily on their preferences.

Be a visionary! See beyond the project’s endpoint. Tell your team the program goals and objectives, the important mile- stones involved, and the requirements for the deliverables. Discuss and debate the strategies and metrics for meeting the team’s goals/objectives with the team members. Delegate tasks to the team members most qualified to handle them. Rely on them to teach others these tasks. Most importantly, trust your team, being careful not to micromanage them nor to being too hands-off. Be there for them when they need your help.

Empower your team members! Have an “open door” policy and allow your team members to make decisions and mistakes without fear of retaliation. Praise them when they do well and counsel them when they make mistakes or do wrong. Share the credit, take the blame. By empowering your team members, they will help you with future endeavors.

Stages in Team Development 2

Forming. is beginning stage could last a few days or go on for weeks. People think about their new tasks and new environ- ment. Members learn about each other, and plan their work and their new roles around these new relationships. Emotions are positive. The work team should also learn about team processes in preparation for rough times ahead. ey need to learn the rudiments of conflict resolution, communication, time management, and group decision-making.

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Storming. e anticipation and enthusiasm of the forming stage quickly fall away as the team faces a myriad of technical, interpersonal, and social problems. They fight and argue. People feel frustration, resentment, and anger as problems fester and work goes undone. Leaders also experience frustration and are tempted to intervene.

Members are on an emotional roller coaster from elation to depression and back again. Without training and support, the team may not progress. Conflict has a bad reputation. But, conflict is normal, natural, and sometimes even necessary. Handled well, conflict can be used to build skills and confidence as the team transitions to the Norming Stage.

Norming. Here, team members work through individual and social issues. ey establish their own norms of behavior and begin to trust each other. As the team develops interpersonal skills, it also hones other skills. Members begin to leverage the strengths of each other for the good of the team. They become increasingly adept at problem solving, learning new skills and cross training each other.

Performing. Now things begin to click. Members help each other, conflict is depersonalized, problems are solved, and goals are achieved and exceeded. Satisfaction and pride become dominant emotions. e team takes pride in its work, in its accomplishments, and in its team interaction. Individuals take pride in their membership.

Adjourning. Some teams have an end, and there can be disappointment and sadness when a team is done and no

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longer working together. e loss is real and members should be given time to adjust to their new roles, whether it is an individual one or a new team role.

Team Leadership

A manager is a person who conducts business or a person who directs a team. To manage is to exercise executive, administrative, and supervisory direction; to work upon or try to alter for a purpose and to succeed in accomplishing. Managing is the process of organizing people and tasks to accomplish some purpose.

A leader, however, is a person who leads, or a person who has commanding authority or influence. To lead is to guide in a way especially by going in advance; to guide someone or something along the way. A leader is someone who blazes a trail and takes others along for the ride in order to further a cause.

When you manage, you complete projects and programs by organizing people and tasks in a logical order. Leading means creating a path for others in order to accomplish a greater objective. People lead in order to create a legacy that will be maintained by others for the long run.

You need the qualities of both a manager and leader in order to accomplish your projects and programs, and to create a plan for the viability of your organization (develop short-term and a long-range plans). In short, the aim of management is to accomplish tasks, projects, and programs effectively, while leadership aims to help others achieve their personal best.

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Learning to Lead

Focus on quality by:

• Setting performance standards

• Outlining realistic goals

• Striving to ensure the highest quality with all objectives

• Maintaining a checklist of your duties and performance of duties

When leading your team, you should: • Develop strengths — self-confidence and self-determination

• Set high goals

• Eliminate weaknesses — face up to your own mistakes • Prepare to lead — understand your team members

• Be a strategist

Examine the process — involve everyone in decision making. Conduct a detailed analysis to determine background infor- mation. Plan effectively for the team and then implement your plans, both for short and long terms.

To better assess your team and mission, consider a SWOT analysis:

• Strengths: What are your competencies? What do you do well?

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• Weaknesses: What are your shortfalls and competi- tive disadvantages? What can you improve on?

• Opportunities: What is out there that you can take advantage of?

• Threats: What areas are deteriorating? What do you need to be aware of?

Communication

Recognize barriers. People do not always think or hear alike. To achieve clarity with your communications, you should:

• Be clear in your own mind about what you want to communicate?

• Deliver the message clearly using the right media.

• Ensure the message has been clearly and correctly understood as intended.

Principles for People Development

Success in developing others will depend on how well you accomplish each of the following:

• Value of People: Your attitude about others

• Commitment to People: How much time will you give them?

• Integrity with People: Character, or how you treat them

• Standard of People: Vision, or how you see them

• Influence over People: How you lead them

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By observing and drawing on the experiences of leaders successful in people development, we learn there are three main areas where they differ from those who are not. Successful people developers make the right assumptions about people, ask the right questions, and give the right assistance when needed.

When determining standards for your team, you should:

• Involve employees in developing standards and/or goals and timetables.

• Provide personal examples of topnotch performance- based work on which standards can be developed.

• Upgrade performance standards whenever there is a need and an opportunity.

• Make standards measurable so you can determine successful outcomes.

Measures and objectives are important to help your team chart its direction. ey tell the team what it is supposed to be doing. Measures and objectives are necessary to:

• Monitor and evaluate the use of company resources and the level of controllable costs.

• Establish measurable and realistic work targets and deadlines.

• Monitor performance for any discrepancies that need to be addressed.

• Establish procedures and rules that employees are expected to follow.

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• Drive interest in progress toward longer-term objectives or goals.

Performance Feedback

Performance feedback is critical to tell your team members how they are doing. Specifically, performance feedback:

• Tells people how they are doing on a day-by-day basis as well as over extended periods of time.

• Is important for coaching and training employees on how to improve performance.

• Is used to determine if goals and objectives are being met.

• Allows employees the opportunity to change their performance.

Performance feedback is an essential element of the supervisor/ subordinate relationship. The vast majority of people want to make a difference in their place of work. They want to be recognized for their accomplishments and learn how to become even better. ey want to know where they stand. People crave feedback that is honest, positive, objective, timely, and fair. But performance feedback is rare.

ere are three main obstacles to giving effective feedback in today’s leadership environment. The first is the pace of operations. Supervisors oen say they are so busy that they do not have the time to devote to giving feedback properly.

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e second has to do with working relationships in today’s business environment. e good news is that more and more supervisors are taking the time to get to know their subordinates and their families. ey say their “door is always open.” e downside of this is that this type of working relationship can make it hard for supervisors to tell their subordinates that they aren’t doing their job well and they could be more effective.

The third obstacle lies in the willingness and readiness of the subordinate to receive feedback. Subordinates might have trouble recognizing there are areas in which they can improve. They might be defensive or concerned for their jobs. There might be personality differences or other issues between the supervisor and subordinates that interfere with communication.

Effective supervisors must be aware of all the dynamics of the relationship and make appropriate adjustments in their approach to feedback.

A formal feedback process has important advantages for supervisors. It motivates subordinates and helps them become more effective. By establishing dialogue with subordinates, supervisors can better understand their individual wants and needs, and the climate of the organization. In organizations where retaining quality people is a high priority, an effective performance feedback system is essential.

In order for performance feedback to be effective, it must follow these key principles:

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Specific: Feedback must be based on observable behavior, not on people’s feelings or the conclusions drawn from their behavior. For example, “Last Friday morning I saw you help Mary fix a problem on her computer. Your willingness to share your expertise is a great example of teamwork and makes this a more effective organization.” This specific example, tied to a positive organizational outcome, is more effective than saying “You are a helpful person,” since the subordinate can link the feedback to an actual event.

Timely: Feedback should be given in a timely manner so that both parties can recall the specific behavior involved.

Actionable: Feedback should be based on something over which a person has control. When necessary, the supervisor should identify ways to improve performance.

Measurable: Goals and objectives should be stated in terms where both parties will know if the goals are achieved.

Achievable: Performance measures should be realistic and within the resources that are available to the subordinate.

Positive: Give both positive and critical feedback, but tip the balance in the positive direction. e Center for Creative Leadership suggests a 4:1 ratio of positive to critical feedback.

When new employees come on board, the supervisor should meet with them as soon after their arrival as possible.

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Non-evaluative: Opinions, perceptions, and reactions should be differentiated from facts. Don’t psychoanalyze; avoid inferences and interpretations. Avoid labels.

Establish a dialogue: e effective feedback session is not a one-way communication. The supervisor should ask the subordinate if they fully understand what is being said and then listen carefully to the response. e supervisor should ensure the subordinate understands their role in the organization and how it contributes to the goals and mission.

When new employees come on board, the supervisor should meet with them as soon aer their arrival as possible. e purpose of this initial feedback session is to help establish the relationship between the supervisor and employee. It is also about setting expectations for the upcoming evaluation period. It is not necessary to negotiate objectives with the subordinate, but the supervisor should help the subordinate take ownership of the goals and internalize expectations. Both parties should leave the initial feedback session with a clear understanding of what is expected. e supervisor provides a written record of the feedback session. is written record is held in confidence.

Supervisors often are required to conduct a follow-up feedback session midway through the evaluation period. is session should be conducted using the principles above and should address the extent to which the expectations were met. As before, a confidential written record is provided.

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e annual performance appraisal system is not a substitute for good communication or for timely, routine feedback. For example, if the subordinate is consistently late for routine meetings, it makes no sense to wait until the annual appraisal cycle to make them aware of the problem. In the same way, workers who consistently perform above standards should not have to wait months to know that their work is appreciated. Supervisors should not assume that, because certain behaviors are obvious to them, they are equally obvious to the subordinate. Daily or routine feedback needs to remain consistent with the principles above.

Annual performance discussions should have no surprises for the employee. e evaluation should summarize the positive and critical feedback given to the employee during specified time periods.

Finally, supervisors who routinely give feedback (both positive and corrective) to subordinates may want to follow up with a personal note or memo. It is possible that the feedback is so routine (or the subordinate so unreceptive) that the subordi- nate misses the message or doesn’t even realize that feedback has taken place.

Giving feedback is a key responsibility of a leader. Work climate surveys strongly suggest that job satisfaction, morale, and retention are closely related to the ability of a leader to provide feedback. Senior leaders must set the example for the organization by giving timely feedback and demanding that leaders at all levels do the same.

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The 6 C’s of Teamwork

Competence

• Develops and meets standards

• Continuously improves effectiveness through training

• Successfully carries out assignments

• Works together productively

• Strives to increase the level of knowledge concerning individuals, departments, and company issues

Candor

• Honest with each other, encouraging others to speak freely

• Actively listens to the opinions of others with an open mind

• Seeks new ideas and challenges old ones

• Confronts problems and controversial issues assertively

Consensus

• Uses facts to support strong opinions

• Develops innovative solutions together

• Uses a win-win approach to conflict

• Develops excellent solutions and supports final decisions

• Strives for total agreement on important issues

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Critique

• Candid, but sensitive to others

• Uses examples and facts as a basis for drawing conclusions

• Focuses on improvements

• Evaluates processes during and aer projects

Cooperation

• Believes we are all in this together

• Involves all members fully

• Shares ideas and information willingly

• Sets challenging goals

Commitment

• Sets rules and then follows them

• Holds self and others accountable

• Seeks team success over individual success

• Commits to following the 6 C’s

Seven Keys to Team Leadership

1. Help the team identify its purpose. People work more effectively when they understand the goals they are trying to achieve. As a leader, it is your job to help the team members see the desired outcome of their efforts, and help them set specific goals and milestones along the way.

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2. Set the scope and boundaries. Teams need to know what they should tackle and what is too big or not their responsi- bility. By helping teams manage the scope of their work you will keep them more focused and on target to reach the goals more quickly.

3. Show, through both your words and actions, that you believe in them. If you do not believe in the team concept, you will not effectively lead teams. If you do believe both in the concept and in a particular team’s potential, you need to let them know that. Show through both your words and actions that you believe in them. Once they have purpose and goals and your belief in them, they are on their way to success.

4. Define your role. Your role is to lead, not to do the work or make all of the decisions. Tell team members what your role is and isn’t. Help them see how you are relying on their experience, knowledge and intellect in the completion of the team’s work.

5. Be a supporter. Support the team with your actions. Do not just delegate the work to the team and then wipe your hands of any further responsibility. Teams will experience obstacles and roadblocks. It is your job to remove those road- blocks, find additional resources, and provide support. It is like a hike. If you are in front of a group on a hike, you will do your best to remove impediments that might slow down or injure those that follow. Your role on a business team is just the same.

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6. Be a facilitator. Help the team succeed. Provide guidance when needed. Remain hands off as much as you can. Let the team succeed and develop itself toward greater achievement at the same time. To facilitate means “to make easier,” and that is your role. Remember that you chose to use a team to accomplish the task, so let it achieve that goal.

7. Be careful about what you say. Teams oen look to leaders to make the final decisions or assume that the leader has veto power on any decision in the end. If you really support the team approach, and are genuine in wanting and needing its input, you need to sit back and let team members speak. If you are always the first person to talk on a subject, you will slowly stifle their willingness to participate. Team members will subconsciously assume that your word is golden— whether they agree or not. Because of your position, you must abstain from the early part of a dialogue on issues and share your thoughts near the end of the conversation.

–––––––––––– 2 Adapted from Bruce uckman’s 1965 model of Forming, Storming, Norming, and Performing.

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5 |

Chapter 3

Conflict in the Workplace

It is always best to confront difficulties at the lowest level in the organization.

Dealing with Team Conflict

e team concept creates an environment where conflict is bound to happen. Few people are trained to deal with conflict, or have difficulty making discussions with peers or subordi- nates, and they don’t enjoy it. However, as a supervisor, it is essential for you to learn how to handle conflict as it is part of the responsibility of your position. With the right tools, you too, can learn how to handle these discussions effectively.

Understanding how conflict happens at work can be helpful for anticipating and fending off situations that may become hostile. While it may seem that conflict can erupt over the slightest of issues in the workplace, the following are the typical reasons why it occurs.

1. Incompatible goals between individuals or groups of individuals can be created. For example, imagine a head bank teller telling a subordinate that rapid service is an absolute must from now on—while at the same time, the community relation's director instructs all employees to focus their efforts upon quality customer contact. One

can imagine how quickly problems could arise between the teller and the head teller if speed is sacrificed for quality time with the customer.

2. A second source of conflict has to do with our personal values. For example, it does not take long for employees who enjoy going to happy hour aer work to begin distancing themselves from those who want to go home to their families at night. Such distancing oen is accompanied by gossiping, suspicion, distrust, and ultimately conflict.

3. e extent to which we depend upon others to complete our work is a third contributing factor. Certainly conflict would be rare if your task was simply to copy a report on your own copy machine and then file it. However, if you are being pressured to run a report for the records department and must wait for your turn to use the company copier while the person in front of you spends more time talking than copying, frustration could mount and conflict may follow.

4. Lack of resources is another source of conflict. Whether it’s people, time, money, or things, when we do not have what we need to meet current job demands, frustration begins to mount. Ask yourself what happened the last time you were unable to gain access to something you needed at work. Perhaps you lost patience.

5. e power distribution at work can be a fih source of conflict. We all have known people who seem to wield their power inappropriately. Individuals sometimes

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inadvertently step on other people’s toes as they try to complete their own tasks. In addition, there are times when individuals or departments may be viewed as providing a more valuable service to the organization than do others. In such cases, resentment oen arises, laying the foundation for conflict.

6. Changes to company policies and procedures also may cause conflict. Some organizations seem notorious for continually changing their policies. Others seem to have no policies at all, or administer them so infrequently that they seem almost non-existent. Examples include regular office meetings becoming irregular or being told that you are violating a policy that you thought you were abiding by a week ago, such as the way you dress. In any case, the absence of clear policies, or policies that are continu- ally changing, creates an environment of uncertainty and subjective interpretation that makes one feel vulnerable and helpless.

Confronting Difficult Situations with People

It is always best to confront difficulties at the lowest level in the organization. For example, if you have a conflict with your peers, prepare your case and go talk to them one on one to see if you can resolve the conflict.

As a supervisor, if an employee comes to you with concerns about a co-worker, the first question you should ask is, “Have you spoken to this person yourself about the issue?” If the

CONFLICT IN THE WORKPLACE | 61

answer is no, then ask why not. ey may need some help in knowing how to approach their peer in a manner that does not make the matter worse. Avoidance is a common tactic that many use in the workplace. e thought is that it will work itself out. While this may appear to be the simple solution, it is rarely the correct one.

When a conflict at work requires you to confront an individual, the most effective way is to use what is known as an “assertive” approach. Being assertive does not necessarily mean exerting power and being mean, but it does require effort and practice, and most find it to be extremely helpful in addressing their needs. Here are some points you may find helpful to learn and practice before you have to confront an individual:

1. ink about what it is you want to address. What is really bugging you?

2. Set a time to talk with the individual.

3. Deal with only one topic at a time.

4. Be brief and specific.

5. Do not attack the person. Rather, address a specific behavior that the person can recognize and work toward changing (e.g. “I would like you to arrive to work on time,” rather than, “I would like you to be more conscientious.”)

6. Ask for and listen to their point of view.

In the end, avoiding conflict is easier than confronting it. However, this approach does very little to satisfy your desire

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to make your workplace a productive and pleasant environment. By better understanding how conflict and anger arise and by practicing how to handle it assertively when it does occur, you can make conflict far less intimidating, and it can actually become an aspect of work you can learn to manage rather than let it manage you.

What to do when conflict happens 3

Sometimes the issue evokes strong emotions in you or others. When this happens, the C.A.L.M. model can be a great tool to prepare yourself for confronting another person.

Clarify the Issue Address the Problem Listen to the Other Side Manage Your Way to Resolution

We start with Clarifying the Issue. Ask yourself these questions to get a clear understanding of what the issue really is.

Primary Questions

1. What am I upset about? In specific behavioral terms, what actually happened? Who else is involved? What did they do?

2. What emotions am I feeling: anger, hurt, frustration? Why am I feeling this way?

3. Have I contributed to the problem?

4. Am I just over-reacting? If so, why?

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5. In terms of actions and relationships, what do I desire as an outcome to this conflict? What will successful resolution look like?

6. If I were the other person involved in this situation, how would I want to be approached and dealt with?

Secondary Questions

1. Where may the other person have been coming from? How might they have been motivated by good intentions?

2. Has this happened before? Is this a first-time occurrence?

3. How is this situation affecting me and my work? Are others affected? If so, how?

4. When dealing with this issue, what can I do to increase my chances of getting the results I want? What counter-productive behaviors do I want to avoid?

Address the Problem: How you open the meeting can be critical. Try to meet in a neutral setting and keep it comfortable for all involved. e tone of voice should be non-accusatory and should tell the person you are open for discussion.

e Opening:

I need your help to solve a problem I am facing.

Define the Issue (let them know):

Exactly what happened? How it made you feel.

e negative impacts the situation has caused.

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Other ings to Remember:

Have a walk-in strategy. You may want to practice what you plan to say.

Do not repeat what co-workers have said. is is between the two of you.

Keep the end in mind. e goal is not to win an argument. e goal is to reach a respectful, collaborative result.

Listen to the Other Side: Once you have shared your view, open the discussion and ask for their view. By listening atten- tively, and without judgment, finding a solution may be easier than you think.

1. Give the other person your total attention.

2. Never interrupt.

3. Ask questions for clarification.

4. Paraphrase what you have heard.

5. Show that you are listening; look them in the eye.

6. Use positive body language.

Manage Your Way to Resolution: When others have shared their view, it is now time to work toward a solution. Do not be too eager to tell them what the solution is or it will make them feel like you have not listened to their viewpoint. Use these tips to find a mutual agreement.

1. Gain an agreement that a problem exists.

CONFLICT IN THE WORKPLACE | 65

2. Identify each other’s concerns and needs.

3. Explore win-win solutions.

4. Agree on a course of action.

5. Determine how to handle missteps, should they happen.

6. Close on a positive note.

Managing Team Conflict

It is commonplace for organizations to work in teams. Whether they’re leader-driven or self-directed teams, the hope is that productivity, creativity, and results will be greater in a team environment. While this is a proven approach, any time you bring people together from differing backgrounds and experiences, it is inevitable that conflict will occur.

Many people and organizations view conflict as a negative, something to be avoided. Yet conflict, differences in opinions, and disagreements are a natural result of people working together. Without conflict, teams can become complacent and not perform at optimum levels. The challenge then becomes how the team should prepare itself for this stage of its existence, and how the team leader should facilitate the team through it.

Conflict arises from a clash of perceptions, goals, or values in an arena where people care about the outcome. If not managed correctly, it can totally disrupt the entire group process. However, the old saying, “at which does not kill us will only

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make us stronger” illustrates how successfully managed conflict can benefit the group.

The best approach to preventing unnecessary conflict is by establishing operating standards and objectives that team members can buy into and support. en by enforcing your team rules consistently and fairly, you generally can avoid negative conflict.

e first steps in resolving team conflicts are based on an analysis of the team dynamics. is may sound complex and time consuming, but it is a simple process because it is based on assessing the personality types involved. In contrast to overall personality typing, like Myers Briggs, this focuses on the interaction styles of individuals and how they relate. ese styles are accentuated when there is a conflict or a difference in opinions about goals, directions, and plans.

People can be divided into different categories in many ways. When interacting with others, there are varying degrees of extroversion and introversion, aggressiveness, collaboration and competitiveness, and possessiveness. Some people shrink away from conflict and competitiveness. Some are aggressive and see everything as a clash of wills. Some readily compro- mise by trying to blend their own views and aims with those of others, while others simply accept things as they are and have no opinion either way on a matter. In essence, the de- grees of give and take, and the feelings of togetherness versus individuality typically dominate team dynamics.

CONFLICT IN THE WORKPLACE | 67

Regardless of which approach is used, teams can surmount many differences and avoid conflict if they define common goals and values in the early stages. Goals may seem self- ev- ident, but the motivations that determine the success or fail- ure of these goals are as unique as the individuals themselves.

e overall goal may be to develop a new product, design a new piece of equipment, or create a new report. But the rele- vance of each task is interpreted differently by each person according to their attitudes and perceptions about it. e team can shape plans, set schedules, enact various ways of doing things, and decide upon how the work is reported and recog- nized so that each person’s individual needs and preferences are met.

For example, if a person is individualistic and competitive, then that person’s work assignments can be structured as standalone sub-projects completed by him or her, requiring minimal input from others. is allows them to participate as individuals while still being recognized as contributing to the overall team effort. For others, team involvement may be important. Individuals desiring this type of work environment simply thrive better when working in a group. Tasks and efforts are shared in circumstances such as these and responsibility then falls on the shoulders of several individuals instead of a sole member.

Regardless of whether dealing with individuals or with groups, the key thing for a leader to remember when interpersonal conflict does arise is that an open line of communication is

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usually the best defense toward finding a workable solution. This means creating a safe-zone where employees can voice their opinions and concerns freely and openly with no fear of retaliation.

Creating a safe-zone requires a leader to assume the role of a facilitator, or that of a neutral party whose responsibility is to demand mutual respect among team members throughout the resolution process. While you can still encourage, support, and clarify, your most important function in this role is to ensure that team rules and codes of conduct are enforced, both fairly and consistently.

Constructive conflicts exist when:

1. People change and grow personally from the conflict.

2. e conflict results in a solution to a problem.

3. Everyone’s involvement increases as a result of the conflict.

4. It builds cohesiveness among the members of the team.

Destructive conflicts exist when:

1. No decision is reached and the problem still exists.

2. It diverts energy away from more value-added activities.

3. It destroys the morale of team members.

4. It polarizes or divides the team.

Role of Team Leader in Managing Conflict

Organizations and relationships typically fail to mature when conflict is le unresolved. Clearly then, the goal of any leader

CONFLICT IN THE WORKPLACE | 69

or manager should be to find a solution equitable to everyone involved. So, leaders must remain impartial and facilitate understanding among the group members.

Preventative Strategies

One of the most effective ways to prevent conflict is establish- ing a good set of ground rules that the team can refer back to for guidance should conflict arise. In addition to outlining processes or behaviors that the group will either allow or prohibit, ground rules also can be used as a way to remove leaders from the role of enforcer.

Another successful technique is for the team to come to agreement on how conflict will be resolved when it occurs. is could include simply reaching a decision by consensus. Most importantly, having a well-defined policy on how conflict will be handled forces the team to focus on behaviors that contribute to it, rather than hamper conflict-resolution efforts.

Training in conflict resolution or communication skills would be invaluable to a team. It would be preferable and most effective if the team could attend this training as a group.

Reactive Strategies

Acting: Exercising an authoritarian approach. Simply tell the group what the resolution will be. is resolves the issue quickly and without discussion. is strategy is best used in emergency situations or when emotions are high and issues will require unpopular decisions. ink through any expected

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negative fallout ahead of time and have a contingency plan in place. Tell people assertively what it is that you are going to do. Do not hesitate or waffle, as this will only add to the confusion.

Adjusting: Splitting differences, exchanging concessions, or giving and taking to reach a middle ground. Good when a quick, temporary solution is needed for a complex issue. It merges different opinions or perspectives quickly. Oen a third party mediator is called in to help determine the requirements of all parties. End the mediation by summarizing, gaining commitments, and setting up future checkpoints in the plan.

Accommodating: Sacrificing self-concerns when yielding to another person. Most valuable when one person is more vested in the outcome, when someone is wrong or has made a bad decision, or simply when they have more to gain at a later date. Using this approach requires someone to admit their mistake and then be willing to work toward resolving the matter. Emotions need to be taken out of the picture and there must be discussion as to why one person’s giving in is the right thing to do. en thank them for their willingness to work things out.

Avoiding: Withdrawing, sidestepping or postponing the issue. Most effective when the issue is of low importance or the conflict is a symptom of bigger issues, when you have no decision-making authority, or when the issue will resolve itself over time. If using the final approach, make sure you explain why nothing is being done or when you do expect to tackle the issue.

CONFLICT IN THE WORKPLACE | 71

Step-by-Step Process

1. Set expectations. Let all parties know up front that the goal is to resolve the conflict.

2. Make sure all parties want to resolve it.

3. Do not allow for any finger pointing. Let them know there will be no winners or losers. ey are all in this together.

4. Clearly identity the reasons for the conflict.

5. Brainstorm solutions that benefit all parties.

6. Get consensus from all parties on the chosen solution.

7. Implement the consented solution.

8. Monitor and evaluate the success/failure of the solution.

9. If successfully resolved — celebrate! If not, go back to step #7.

10. Follow up and follow through on any additional requirements.

Resolving Conflict Constructively

Not all conflict and tension is bad. When managed construc- tively, disagreements can lead to new ideas, products and best practices, and new ways to do things. Here are seven steps to ensure that conflict is managed constructively:

1. Deflect aggression

• If the other person is emotional or hostile, remain centered and ignore personal attacks. If that does not

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work, simply remove that person or yourself from the situation and go through a cooling-off period.

• If others are in conflict, try to calm them down. Again, if that does not work, remove them from the situation while they cool down.

• Focus on the issues, not the people.

2. Explore the issues

• Probe to understand each person’s point of view.

• Clarify everyone’s assumption.

• Verify facts and, if needed, gather more information.

3. Listen

• Give full attention to the person speaking.

• Paraphrase the other person’s point of view.

• Summarize periodically.

• Be patient, encouraging the other person to continue until they are finished.

• Try to understand how the other person feels.

4. Acknowledge

• Recognize the other person by name.

• Show that you understand and accept the other person’s perspective. You do not have to agree with it, but show your awareness.

• Validate the differences.

CONFLICT IN THE WORKPLACE | 73

5. Solve the problem

• Define the problem.

• Clarify the issues and goals.

• Find and evaluate alternatives.

• Determine solution criteria.

• Apply the criteria and build consensus.

6. Negotiate

• If problem solving fails, try to negotiate.

• Find acceptable tradeoffs.

• Determine the impact of tradeoffs on each party.

• Compromise. If that is not possible, submit to arbitration.

7. Assert

• When all else fails, be assertive.

• State your position.

• Express your needs.

• If necessary, agree to disagree.

Resolving Disagreements

Disagreements among team members may not develop into major conflict but still can be disruptive. Here are some suggestions for resolving disagreements:

• Know what is at stake for each person. Ensure that the disagreement is over issues that can be discussed rationally.

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• Agree on the issues. Make sure everyone is talking about the same thing.

• Examine assumptions. Other points of view sometimes seem unreasonable because of false assumptions.

• Determine the source of disagreement. Have they interpreted the facts differently? Is there a deeper conflict of values?

• Gather more evidence. Focus on outcomes.

• Have them paraphrase each other’s position. is is an excellent technique. Have each person paraphrase the other’s position before stating their own.

• Suggest that individuals focus on perceptions and share theirs. An opposing position may be less threatening, and certain individuals may find it easier to empathize when it is stated in terms of perceptions: I perceive that …

Encourage mutual acceptance. If all else fails, suggest that they validate each other’s perspective and agree to disagree.

Expect Conflict

You will be exposed to conflict. It is a natural part of life. Whether or not the conflict involves you does not matter. How you handle the conflict will determine your success as a leader.

CONFLICT IN THE WORKPLACE | 75

Complaint Procedures

• Management-designed series of steps for handling employee complaints

• Usually explained in employee handbook or policies • Usually provides for a number of appeals before a final decision.

–––––––––––– 3 Adapted from What To Do When Conflict Happens, Participant Workbook (2007). Carlsbad, CA: CRM Learning, L.P.

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Chapter 4

Recruiting and Selecting Your Team

e hiring process should be set to the same rigorous standards as those used when making any

other strategic decision.

Hiring for Attitude

e hiring patterns you establish today will determine the kind of culture, service standards, and reputation you will have tomorrow.

is is undeniable: You cannot build a great company without great people. How many companies are as rigorous about hiring or as comfortable evaluating job candidates as they are about deciding on an investment proposal or deciding which contractor company to hire? e all-too-common reality is that hiring processes are poorly designed and executed.

Of course, making the commitment to hire great people raises an even more basic question: How do you know them when you see them? In the last few years, a number of companies have asked themselves that question. ey have analyzed what separates their winners from their losers, good hires from bad

hires. ese companies compete in a wide range of industries —from airlines to steel, computers to hotels—but they all arrived at the same answer: What people know is less impor- tant than who they are. Hiring, they believe, is not about finding people with the right experience, but finding people with the right mindset. These companies hire for attitude and train for skill.

The same can be said for promotions and advancement in an organization. All too often, employees are promoted into supervisory positions because they have demonstrated excel- lence in their work or because they have been there for a long time. As supervisors, now they deal with people and their needs instead of simply production needs. Are we really setting these employees up for success if we promote based only on technical competency?

Do not get the wrong idea. Just because we need to look beyond technical skills when hiring does not mean that we need to become amateur psychologists. It simply means that the hiring process should be set to the same rigorous standards as those used when making any other strategic decision.

Hire for Attitude, Train for Skill

Truth #1: Most organizations hire for technical competence and expertise, hoping that the technically gied will bring the right attitude with them.

Truth #2: You will hire people for what they know and what they can do. You most oen will fire people for who they are.

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Truth #3: What people know is less important than who they are. What we know changes very fast in an information-based world. Who we are changes over a long period of time.

Truth #4: Hiring someone with a bad or marginal attitude, but who is technically competent, and then expecting the Training Department to change them is a decision you will pay for over and over again.

Truth #5: When you have fewer people doing more work you cannot afford to make a sloppy hiring decision.

Truth #6: The most admired companies in the world are absolutely rigorous about hiring—it is a strategic priority for them. They know the price they will pay for just filling a position.

e New Model for Smart Hiring

1. What You Know Changes, Who You Are Does Not Popeye (Popeye the “Sailor Man” is an American cartoon fictional character created by Elzie Crisler Segar in 1930s) was right: “I y’am what I y’am.” e most common—and fatal—hiring mistake is to find someone with the right skills but the wrong mindset and hire them on the theory, "We can change ’em.” Forget it. e best predictor of future behavior is past behavior.

2. You Cannot Find What You are Not Looking For ere are several dimensions for success on the job, including practical learning, teamwork, tolerance

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for stress, sales ability, attention to detail, adaptability, flexibility, and motivation, just to name a few. If you are not looking for these traits and skills, you will not find them.

3. You Cannot Hire People Who Do Not Apply Companies that take hiring seriously also take recruiting seriously. Successful companies seldom lack job candidates. e goal is to have the right job candidates, not the most.

Another approach to recruiting builds on the theory that blood is thicker than water. Most companies with advanced hiring systems encourage family members to apply for jobs. e logic is simple. If “who people are” is what matters, who better to hire than people related to your top performers? Another option is to encourage employees to recommend candidates—again our friends, with values similar to ours.

Why Quality Recruiting and Selection Matters

e hiring and selection patterns you establish today will determine the kind of culture, service standards, and reputation you have tomorrow. Will it be a culture you are excited about or one you simply tolerate? Will it be a reputation you are proud of or one for which you are always making excuses?

What you know will change through experience, education, and on-the-job training, but who you are is less likely to

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change as fast. So hiring someone with the hope that you can change their core character and the fundamental values that shape their attitude when they come to work for you is a bad hiring decision. Many marriages fail today for the same reason. We like some things but not everything about our potential spouse, and we hope that when we finally tie the knot we can change them! But we all know how flawed that thinking is (either through our personal experience or by knowing someone who has tried it and failed).

Finally, in a world with limited resources and more work than ever, we cannot afford to make hiring mistakes. There is a finite amount of time in each day. We can either waste part of that time on personnel problems that emanate from bad hiring decisions, or we can get the most out of that time on things that add value for our customers and widen the gap of competitive advantage.

Why is it difficult to hire the best?

Perhaps it is difficult to hire the best because we have not been through the rigorous process of defining what the best looks like. Hiring people with world-class attitudes starts with identifying the people in your own organization who already have the kind of attributes you want. Find the superstars in your company. Ask their customers, employees, peers, and supervisors what makes them so effective, so easy to work with, and so competent. en build a profile of the common denominators that make each superstar successful and hire new people based on those attitudinal profiles.

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Hiring is a pay-me-now or pay-me-later endeavor. If you invest the time up front to critically think through what attitudes, characteristics and values you want, and then hire accordingly, the rewards can be invaluable. If, on the other hand, you are lazy or impatient, the negative consequences can be disastrous. We all know through experience that attitudes are contagious. As you interview people for future positions, ask yourself, “Is theirs worth catching?”

While you are at it, why not ask yourself the same question, “Is my attitude worth catching?” As a leader, you are an ambassador for your organization. You have the power to set the tone for your organization’s success in recruiting, screen- ing, and hiring world-class people with world-class attitudes. What kind of legacy are you building?

Developing a Recruiting and Selection Strategy

In order to be successful, organizations must have the ability to locate, identify, and attract qualified candidates. Recruiting involves much more than placing an employment ad in the paper. An effective recruitment program serves as a foundation for meeting current and future staffing requirements. Incorpo- rating a recruiting strategy that is both systematic and creative provides the innovation and cost effectiveness needed to remain competitive in any business environment.

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e recruiting process involves six key steps:

1. Establish the organization’s recruiting objectives

2. Identify the position requirements and opportunities

3. Evaluate the recruiting climate and response

4. Determine appropriate sources

5. Implement the recruiting campaign

6. Monitor the results

Your Mission, Vision, and Values

You should incorporate your organization’s mission, vision, and values into the selection process. This can be done by including questions during the interview that determine if the candidate is the right person for the job and would be a good fit for your company.

Such questions might include:

• How would you best contribute to our company’s mission of …?

• Tell us about a time when you specifically had to choose the company’s interests over those of your own.

• One of our key values is … what skills or talents do you have that can help us with supporting this value?

e point here is that the person you hire should be able to support your mission, vision, and values. Otherwise, the person will not be a good fit for your company.

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Additionally, you should consider incorporating your values into your performance appraisal process and then rating employees on their performance relative to supporting those values.

Determining Recruiting or Selection Objectives

To determine specific recruiting objectives, start by linking to the organization’s business plan along with evaluating past staffing patterns, current and future hiring needs, and budget restrictions. To arrive at these objectives, consider the following:

Organization’s Business Plan What is the organization’s plan and focus in the next few years? What kind of employees are needed to meet the organization’s needs? If you are selecting team members from an existing pool of employees, what are the team’s objectives and what skills are needed to successfully accomplish those objectives?

Long-Term vs. Short-Term Employment Strategic Plan What are the long-term and short-term needs? Considerations include property acquisitions, downsizing, and expansion.

Position and Team Requirements Position requirements would entail assessing the essential duties and responsibilities of the job, the type and degree of expertise needed, the kind of decision making required, and the amount of time spent performing each function. Cultural fit factors look at how work is accomplished in an organization. For example, the degree of formality and use of set procedures, the pace and amount of change, and the extent of team versus individual work focus are just a few.

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Look for members who focus on logic and data as well as those who look at the impact

decisions will have on people.

e same considerations should be used when selecting team members. In addition, consider the overall skills and abilities of each team member. For a team to be well rounded and perform at its best, look for the strengths each member brings to the table and build upon them. For example, select members who are detail-oriented as well as those who are task-driven.

Look for members who focus on logic and data as well as those who look at the impact decisions will have on people. Good communication, strong listening skills, the ability to work through conflicting points of view, and adaptability are highly prized in all members of the team.

Bad hiring selections oen end up costing organizations a great deal of time and money, and are usually the result of poorly defined or inadequately communicated job requirements. Unrealistic requirements limit the available candidate pool and restrict recruiting efforts. In addition, the amount of training the company will provide for the position is important in deter- mining the level of experience and job knowledge needed for an employee new to the job as opposed to employees who have been in the job for a period of time.

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Reviewing the Resume and Job Application

Reviewing resumes is a critical part of the overall hiring process and is an area where many companies fail to devote enough time. As a result, they either end up with a poor choice or miss a shooting star opportunity.

Resume screening is the process of comparing one candidate’s qualifications to another’s or comparing a candidate’s skills and abilities to the job requirements. Organizations must allocate both time and resources to this. In addition, in this day of electronic applications, resume screening has taken on several new dimensions.

Before the age of electronics, resume screening could be as simple as looking at the design of the document, the quality of the paper used for printing or the size of the envelope it was mailed in. While still useful for mailed resumes, electronic applications have become more of the norm, and with that comes a new set of screening requirements and challenges.

However, there is still one thing that never goes out of style regardless of whether submitted by pen on paper or transmit- ted through electronic gadgetry, and that is proper spelling and grammar. Potential candidates who fail to give adequate attention to details such as these do not warrant the time and effort involved in reviewing their application.

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Steps In Resume Review

1. Resumes should include a cover letter. Review the cover thoroughly before proceeding to the resume. e cover letter tells you a lot about a potential candidate, including why they want to come to work for you, their goals and aspirations, and what they expect from you, if hired. If the resume you are reviewing has no cover letter, it should be a red flag that the applicant made little effort. Depending on the nature of the position you are looking to fill, you will need to decide whether or not to continue reviewing the resume.

2. Scan the resume to obtain an overall impression of the applicant. Look especially for a flawless presentation, correct spelling and grammar, and their attention to detail. Paper resumes must pass the feel test.

3. In the first skim, look for the easy-to-find qualifications. If you are requiring a college degree and they do not have one, reject the resume or place it in your maybe-meets- qualifications pile or electronic folder.

4. Read the section in the cover letter or resume where the candidate tells you what they are looking for in a job. If your job posting stated specific qualifications and the potential candidate stated they are looking for a “challenging environment,” this, again, is a red flag because it shows little effort. is could be an indicator of a poor work ethic.

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5. Look at the applicant’s list of qualifications and experiences to see if they align with the job requirements. Again, if the applicant has taken the time to customize their summary to your needs, you can decide whether or not they have the aptitude and skills you seek.

6. Next, take a look at where the applicant worked in the past. Look for accomplishments and any contributions made while working for previous or current employers. Be aware of anything that specifically relates to the job requirements of the position you are looking to fill. Look for key words that can tie their past experiences to your current needs. Finally, look for any red flag items such as:

• Employment gaps

• Evidence of decreasing responsibility

• Evidence of a career that has reached a plateau or gone backwards

• Short-term employment at several jobs

• Multiple shis in career path

A word of caution here. As you review, be aware of generational differences. Meaning the values and work ethics attributed to the different generations. A baby boomer may see someone who frequently changes jobs as a job hopper or someone not able to hold a job. On the other hand, a Gen Y’er may see the same person as someone expanding their horizons or making themselves more marketable. Be aware of these differences and do not stereotype an applicant as you review the resume.

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7. If in doubt, check it out. Applicants always should include a list of references with their resume. Do not be afraid to call references and ask if there are things about the candi date you should know more about.

8. Finally, schedule interviews with those candidates who have passed your initial screening process.

Remember, the more you review resumes, the better your resume review will become. With practice, your resume review should yield great candidates for you to consider for employment.

In closing, please review the following Checklist for Reviewing Resumes or Application Forms.

Checklist for Reviewing Resumes or Application Forms

Sort applicants by the job for which they are applying. Save miscellaneous applications for last.

• Review the job description(s) for the position(s) you are attempting to fill. Note minimum requirements needed and refer to them oen as you review resumes/applications.

• Ignore the applicant’s name, address or personal information to limit subconscious biases.

• Attempt to ignore superficial issues such as style and typographical areas in favor of content unless such issues are directly related to the position for which

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they are applying. Such scrutiny may unintentionally rule out members of protected classes.

• Check work experience for applicability to the position for which they are applying, length of time they have worked in similar areas, promotions or awards received, and reasons for leaving.

• Note gaps in employment but do not assume they were caused by negative reasons.

• Check educational background for qualifications necessary to have successful job performance.

• Note special skills (i.e. computer soware, office equipment).

• Note on a separate piece of paper any pertinent questions that arise when reviewing the resume/ application and ask those during your initial contact with the prospect.

• Divide resumes into 3 groups—one for those that closely match job requirements and for which a preliminary contact is appropriate, one for those who meet some requirements and may be considered at some point, and one for those who do not meet the requirements at all.

• If necessary, screen the top group again to further narrow down the candidates. On average, about 10 resumes per open position should be sufficient.

During your initial contact with them, briefly describe the position, location, hours and salary range (if appropriate) and

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ask if the candidate is still interested in being considered. If so, this is the time to ask for clarification on any items you had questions about when reviewing their resume.

Hire the Most Qualified Applicant Using a Fair and Non-discriminatory Process

• Review the selection process to ensure that you treat each applicant fairly and consistently.

• Review the interview format and questions for possible bias. Consult with your HR group as well as others trained in the hiring process. en review the process with your recruiting team to ensure there are no questions that are biased and prejudicial. Discuss the impact of common biases such as stereotyping, unsubstantiated first impressions that may influence a decision, and assessments based on differing comfort levels with them. Reaffirm the fact that decisions must be made on facts, not on perceptions.

• Ensure that reasonable accommodations are made for the applicants, such as ensuring that handicapped access is available for an applicant in a wheelchair.

• If using a group interview process, create a diverse selection panel.

• Assess all candidates using the same selection criteria.

• Interview as many applicants as possible to increase the pool from which you will have to choose. Use competency-based interviewing techniques.

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• Eliminate interview questions that are not job related.

• Keep written records of all applicants interviewed and be certain that the information saved is relevant to the applicant’s ability to perform the required duties and are not simply personal opinions.

• Follow up with references aer the interview and ask job-related questions about the applicant’s knowledge, skills, and ability to do the job. Document questions and answers.

• Be consistent with reference checks. Weigh informa- tion received consistently for all applicants.

• Give all applicants an opportunity to address any negative feedback from reference checks.

• Document the selection process fully. Retain all records: interview questions, reference check questions and notes, and the completed interview assessment forms.

Background Checks and Reference Checks

Employers can check for criminal records when conducting employment background checks, but state laws limit the extent to which employers can use these when making hiring decisions. Examples of such decisions include the refusal to hire or promote based solely on their criminal record.

Restrictions concerning the use of criminal records are imposed by state and federal laws and by guidelines established by state

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government agencies and civil rights organizations. Restrictions vary by state. But, overall:

• Employers usually can not disqualify job candidates solely on the grounds that they have criminal records.

• Employers typically may not ask about or consider a juvenile criminal record to make job or other employment-related decisions.

• Employers typically have the right to ask about and conduct an adult criminal record search to make job or other employment decisions.

• Employment decisions about whether or not to hire should be limited to convictions only. Just because an applicant may be charged with a felony does not make them automatically guilty.

• Employers must show that an applicant’s conviction would have an impact on their suitability to fill a position before the employer can make a hiring decision based solely on the conviction. An applicant with a criminal history of child abuse would not be a good fit for a job in a day-care center.

Again, restrictions vary by state. Some are very rigid in what they allow and do not allow, while others may have no restrictions. Regardless, the United States Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) has imposed specific employment discrimination laws which are very broad in nature and sometimes loosely defined.

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For example, if an employer does not hire an applicant because of the specifics of their criminal record, the EEOC still could say that employment discrimination has occurred if that applicant were a member of an ethnic group. It is impor- tant to remember that you must have a justifiable business reason to deny employment if criminal background is involved. If you have any questions about this, or just are not sure, contact your local EEOC field office for more information.

A note of importance: Some states require certain employers to conduct criminal record checks for specific convictions before hiring employees. Employers required to conduct criminal record checks typically are engaged in businesses that involve so-called vulnerable individuals such as children and elderly adults. Examples include child care, education, and home health care.

Pre-Employment Inquiries

U.S. federal law requires employers to conduct the applicant screening and hiring process in a nondiscriminatory manner. Pre-employment inquiries (on application forms, by telephone, in interviews) can be considered illegal if they screen out women, minorities or other protected groups. As a result, the EEOC cautions that inquiries concerning an applicant’s race, color, religion, or national origin may be regarded as discriminatory.

Exceptions: Pre-employment inquiries are permissible if required by local, state, or federal law. ey are also allowed when religion and national origins are bona fide occupational

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qualifications (BFOQs), or where the employer can prove that the inquiry is justified by business necessity and is job-related.

Reference Checks

In addition to contacting former employers and personal references, many organizations expand the selection process to include checks for driving records, education, and other professional credentials and credit history. In general, the following rules apply:

• Check federal, state and local laws and regulations before proceeding.

• Be certain there is a job- or business-related reason for the selection processes utilized (i.e., motor vehicle checks for drivers, credit checks for bank tellers.)

• Explain the procedures on the application form, in the interview, or wherever appropriate.

• Have the applicant sign an authorization form for each of the types of information to be checked. Legal counsel can assist with proper wording.

• ere are numerous firms that provide assistance with background checks. Be certain they are reputable and comply with all federal, state and local laws.

• Maintain confidentiality.

Other Legal Considerations

Every country has employment laws that govern the do’s and don’ts of recruiting and interviewing. Although we have

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highlighted some areas that all leaders should be aware of, this is not a complete list of legal considerations. A good Human Resources person or employment attorney can be a huge asset to ensure your processes and procedures keep you out of court.

Developing the Interview and Questions

Respect the Candidate

Valuing candidate’s time can be one of the most important drivers in the interview process.

1. e interview schedule should meet candidate and interview team needs to the extent possible.

2. Try to minimize follow-up interviews for candidates as much as possible (particularly out-of-town applicants). Web-based preliminary interviews are particularly helpful and convenient for out-of-town candidates.

3. Make sure that every member of your interview team starts and ends the interview on time. Schedule a 15-minute buffer between interviews in the event one of them runs long or a candidate shows up late.

4. Make sure you schedule a lunch break for your interview team so they can relax and re-energize. If possible, have the team members eat together so they can discuss the events of the morning.

5. Keep the number of interviews manageable.

6. Ensure all interviewers have a copy of the candidate’s resume in advance.

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7. Appoint an individual to be the point person for the candidate.

8. Provide the candidate with a follow-up timeline, or what will happen next.

We want candidates to feel their time has been well-spent. When the candidate leaves, they should have clear expectations about the next step and a positive impression of the organization.

Once interviews have been completed, the interview team should meet to discuss the candidates and make a selection decision. is should be done as soon as the interview team is able.

If the decision is to extend an offer, work with appropriate staff to develop the offer and convey it to the candidate.

If you’re not going to hire a candidate, tell them. Be sure to communicate in a timely fashion.

If the decision is to hold onto the candidate (not offer but not reject), someone on the interview team should contact them to let them know they are a viable candidate and what to expect next. Sometimes you may hold a candidate until your top one accepts the job offer or until additional candidates have been interviewed.

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Core Competencies: Behavioral Definitions

Adaptability: • Seek, understand, and accept change.

• Treat change and new situations as opportunities for learning or growing.

• Focus on the beneficial aspects of change.

• Speak positively about the change to others.

• Modify behavior to deal effectively with changes in the work environment.

• Try new approaches for new situations.

Teamwork: • Value, appreciate, and include others.

• Place team or organizational goals ahead of personal ones.

• Help others achieve mutual goals.

• Exchange ideas freely and then build on them.

• Get team consensus on ideas and then take action on them.

Integrity: • Be honest and forthright.

• Present information accurately and completely.

• Keep commitments.

• Keep confidences.

• Be consistent with words and actions.

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• Represent organizational strengths and abilities fairly and equitably.

Initiative: • Take thoughtful, yet timely action when confronted with a problem or difficult situation.

• Implement new ideas or solutions without being prompted.

• Be an overachiever. Go above and beyond basic job requirements in order to achieve goals.

• Seek opportunities to improve efficiencies and reduce costs.

Innovation: • Identify alternate ways to view or define problems.

• Use as many diverse sources for ideas and inspiration as you can find.

• Brainstorm ideas.

• Consider multiple solutions.

• Target areas for innovation.

Functional Competencies: Behavioral Definitions

Accounting and Finance: • Prepare cost projections for new and existing products and submit them in a monthly report to your manager.

• Ensure inventory accounts are properly funded on a monthly basis.

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Administrative: • Prepare and/or coordinate such things as travel arrangements, presentations, meetings, and other functions as requested by manager.

• Enter all necessary data into the books, and then review and reconcile the books on a monthly basis to ensure that all invoices are submitted and/or paid prior to due dates.

Engineering: • Design, write, and execute standard protocols.

• Support manufacturing through continuous process/ product improvement efforts.

Human Resources: • Analyze data in regards to turnover, cost per hire, compensation, benefits, and affirmative action relative to industry trends. Report findings to management on a monthly basis.

• Monitor the effectiveness of all policies and procedures to ensure compliance. Support and broaden the diver- sity of your workforce through both your hiring and your promotion efforts.

Information Technology: • Prioritize and manage Information System projects to assure they are on time and on budget. If the project involves new hardware or soware, ask for feedback from users to ensure everything is running as

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expected and they are properly trained on the use of the new products.

• Monitor network performance for problems on a daily basis.

Warehouse Operations: • Check incoming procurements against requisitions, shipping memos, packing slips, invoices, and/or freight bills to assure that all orders are received in full and arrived in good condition. Also, make sure that all outgoing sales and orders are packaged and shipped in a timely manner. If inconsistencies are found in either incoming or outgoing products, report them to management on the shi on which they were found.

• Read and understand all rules and regulations pertaining to warehouse management, especially those related to the occupational safety and health hazard-related issues.

Production: • Check product/production outputs for accuracy, quality, and quantity on a daily, sometimes even an hourly basis. If there are negative variances, try to determine the cause.

• Ensure that all equipment is properly set up and in safe working condition on a shi-by-shi basis. Report any deficiencies immediately.

• Provide operator training on all equipment and then monitor performance to ensure proficiency and abilities.

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Quality/Regulatory Affairs: • Periodically conduct quality assurance checks. is includes checking incoming materials, work in progress, and finished goods. Ensure that all work being done is according to well defined criteria and follows rules and regulations defined by regulatory agencies.

• Analyze all data received and communicate results to your management team. Look for any gaps in expected outcomes. en create and assign action plans to ensure corrections are made.

Research and Development: • Develop tactics and strategies that encourage the development and launch of new products and services. Conduct marketing surveys to find what customers want and need. Share success stories at monthly department meetings.

Sales and Marketing: • Develop and implement strategies and tactical plans to achieve current and long-range sales goals for assigned products. Communicate these to management on a quarterly basis.

• Modify proposals or plans to deal with customers’ concerns and incorporate customers’ suggestions on an ongoing basis.

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Scientific/Medical: • Coordinate input, collaboration, and consultation for the design of clinical protocols and submissions to ensure the proper product indications are supported. Ensure medical and scientific protocol validity.

• Generate sound scientific data by identifying and solving problems, planning and taking the lead on assigned development projects, writing and reviewing scientific reports, and performing laboratory activities.

Leadership Competencies: Behavioral Definitions

Build Our Organization and Inspire Our People: • Determine and acquire, or develop, the knowledge, skills, and abilities needed to achieve the organization’s goals.

• Staff the organization from various disciplines, backgrounds, and cultures to promote and capitalize on diversity and to ensure complementary talents and skills.

• Create a committed and productive organization that acts with integrity.

• Establish clear expectations and provide timely, accurate feedback, both positive and negative. Take appropriate follow-up action when needed.

• Recognize, reward, and promote people based on their performance, achievements, and development of competencies.

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• Serve as a role model.

Set Vision and Strategy:

• Understand trends, their implications, and opportunities in the global environment.

• Maintain a strong customer focus.

• Identify and capitalize upon opportunities to create value from cross-division capabilities.

• Communicate the business vision and strategies to all in the organization.

• Look to the future using the global marketplace, technology, and business knowledge to identify emerging opportunities, and then seize them.

• Translate the business vision and broad strategies into concrete, actionable strategic plans and goals, prioritizing goals, projects, and plans appropriately.

Encourage Open Exchange of Ideas and Knowledge: • Foster a work environment that encourages open communication and knowledge sharing, leveraging that sharing to drive continuous improvement and positive outcomes.

• Encourage the expression of opposing and differing points of view.

• Practice effective listening skills.

• Listen and think about diverse or differing ideas before responding.

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• Proactively seek feedback and demonstrate a willingness to learn and change.

• Give honest, timely feedback, both positive and critical, to staff as well as to higher-level management.

Know the Business: • Continuously scan the environment, identifying key issues, trends, relationships, and cause/effect as they affect the business.

• Learn from and build on business experience to ensure success.

• Demonstrate a strong personal capability for learning new aspects of the business and encourage others to do the same.

Drive for Results: • Collaboratively set realistic, challenging, measurable goals and timetables.

• Set short-term objectives that drive longer-term goals or strategies.

• Support staff with necessary resources to achieve goals.

• Hold yourself and others accountable for delivering high-quality results.

• Regularly evaluate yourself and your team on goal attainment, the process used to achieve goals and competitive benchmarks.

• Be tenacious.

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Make the Difficult Decisions:

• Demonstrate the willingness to make and accept unpopular decisions or take opposing positions.

• Challenge the status quo on traditional ways of doing things.

• Recognize signs of crisis situations and take corrective action at the earliest indication of trouble.

• Recognize errors and make corrections as necessary.

• Make the difficult decisions when needed.

General Guidelines for Choosing Questions

Using behavior-based questions is an effective way to learn how the candidate has responded in the past. Since past behav- ior is the best predictor of future behavior, we highly suggest using behavior-based questions. Although situational questions can be useful, candidates can oen give you a textbook answer without ever having been in the situation themselves.

A behavior based question is an open-ended one that causes the candidate to discuss how they have responded to a situa- tion in the past. Each question asks the candidate to evaluate:

1. A positive situation/task

2. A negative situation/task

3. A situation/task with a subordinate, co-worker, supervisor or customer.

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Choose questions for each competency that you are seeking for a particular position. Make sure you address each type of question for each competency. By looking at questions from various perspectives, you will gain further insight into personality factors as revealed through behaviors.

How to Create Your Own Behavior-Based Interview Question

Sometimes, particularly with functional competencies, you will need to create your own behavior-based questions. Following the steps below, you will be able to create legal and behaviorally orientated questions in no time.

Remember, the point of the question is to use the past to help predict the future.

1. Begin by identifying the position’s behavior and related competency.

2. A good way to start a question is with one of the following phrases “Describe a time, situation, action …” “Tell me about …” “Give an example of …” or “Provide an example of a situation when …”

3. When choosing your words, use terminology specific to the position.

4. Get to the heart of the matter quickly — questions should be no more than one to two sentences.

5. Avoid creating a scenario for the candidate. Words that indicate you are doing this include “like,” “for example,” and “for instance.”

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6. Review your questions to ensure that they are legal.

7. Remember, if it is not job-related, it is not relevant.

8. Human Resources should review any questions you create.

Beyond the First Behavioral Question

A good behavioral-based question will accomplish two things: 1) get the candidate talking and 2) give you an oppor- tunity to see how the candidate acted or reacted. Your job is not done aer you ask the first question, though. Sometimes you will need more information. Remember that all behav- ior- based interview questions seek a STAR within the answer. S/T is the situation/task; A is the action the candidate took in that instance; R is the result. When using the STAR method, ask questions starting with “How,” “What,” “When,” “Where,” and “Why.”

Do not hesitate to ask for the outcome in both subjective and objective forms. If the candidate cannot think of a time they experienced a situation or task, do not let them speculate on how they may have responded. Suggest a scenario or two to jog their memory. If they still cannot think of a situation, move on to the next question. is tells you something about them that is helpful.

Core Competencies and Corresponding Questions

Listed below are the core competencies we described earlier, along with some behavior based questions/situations that can be used as examples to help you build your own questions.

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Adaptability: • Describe a time when you came up with a new process while in your position.

• Describe a time when you had to change your thinking when you really did not want to or did not agree with what was being proposed.

Teamwork: • Give an example of a time when you encouraged a more reserved member of the team to contribute to the sharing of ideas.

• Give an example of a time when you put your personal interests aside in order to recognize the achievement of a team member or the organization.

• Tell about a time when you supported an organization’s decisions even though you felt as though there were better alternatives.

Integrity: • Tell about a time when you were asked to do something that you believed was not right.

• Describe a time when you were asked to provide a customer with a product or service that was not truly needed.

• Describe a time when you were given full credit for a job when there were actually others who had contributed significantly to the outcomes.

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Initiative: • Explain the manner in which you handled a difficult situation with a customer.

• Describe a time when you identified a small problem before it became a big problem.

• Give an example of a new idea you came up with and presented without the prompting of your supervisor.

Innovation: • Describe a time when you came up with a new way of looking at things.

• Give one or two examples of changes you have made to the way things used to be done prior to your moving into your current position.

• Give an example of an unusual place you found information that has helped you on the job.

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Chapter 5

Leadership Communications

Effective communication has occurred only when the receiver understands the message.

Communications

Effective communication is ESSENTIAL to being successful in the workplace. e biggest cause of workplace problems is poor communications. e key to the communication process is to be understood.

Functions of Communication

1. Convey ideas, concepts, plans, procedures, work requirements, etc.

2. Motivate, inspire, and direct performance in others.

3. Provide a release for concerns, problems, issues, and workplace conflict.

4. Provide information needed to make informed decisions.

Communication Goals

e aim of communication is the transference and under- standing of information between two or more people.

Communication always must be between two or more people. ere is always a sender and a receiver. You participate in both roles, and your role will change alternatively and frequently throughout the conversation.

Effective communication has occurred only when the receiver understands the message. Feedback is critical to ensuring that the message has been accurately received and understood.

Six Barriers to Effective Communication

1. Filtering: A sender’s manipulation of information so that it will be seen more favorably by the receiver.

2. Selective Perception: People selectively interpret what they see on the basis of their interests, background, experience, and attitudes.

3. Information Overload: A condition in which information inflow exceeds an individual’s processing capacity.

4. Emotions: How a receiver feels at the time a message is received will influence how the message is interpreted.

5. Language: Words have different meanings to different people.

6. Communication Apprehension: Undue tension and anxiety about oral communication, written communication, or both.

A Good Communicator:

• Seeks out and is receptive to input from others.

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• Uses a variety of questioning techniques to gain insight and participation into conversation.

• Practices active listening.

• Channels information upward, downward, and laterally.

• Coordinates with all other leaders, peers, superiors, and subordinates.

• Consistently reviews daily operations and provides feedback and/or instructions.

• Uses a variety of communication vehicles and chooses the most appropriate vehicle(s) and/or style(s) for a given situation.

• Effectively presents ideas to work group members.

• Explains the “why” behind work assignments and activities/policies that impact the work group or individual employees.

• Identifies and resolves communication problems between group members, including when it involves them.

Active Listening

Active listening is a communication technique that reduces defensiveness and loss of self-esteem, and acts to defuse an emotional exchange. e term “active listening” means the ability to pick up, define, and respond accurately to the feel- ings expressed by the other person. When active listening is employed, people perceive that they are being understood.

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When you fail to listen well, you risk:

• Misreading people’s intentions • Misinterpreting ideas • Confusing the issue • Misjudging people’s qualifications • Misunderstanding instructions • Jumping to the wrong conclusions • Antagonizing people

e Four Steps of Active Listening

1. Listen: To feelings as well as to words, emotions, and implications. Focus on the speaker. Look at them. Use verbal and nonverbal encouraging signs to let them know you are listening to them. Do not plan what to say or get distracted while listening.

2. Question: Demonstrates you are listening. Use to gather information and to obtain clarification. Ask open-ended questions such as “Tell me more,” “How did you feel?” or “en what happened?”

3. Reflect-Paraphrase: In your own words, reflect what is said and the feelings expressed, reframe to capture the essence of the communication, remove negative framing, and move toward problem solving.

4. Agree: Get speaker’s consent to your reframing. is lets the speaker know they have been heard. Let them know that a solution is near!

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Climbing the LADDER—to better listening

LOOK at the speaker — Meanings are not in the words, but in the people.

ASK questions — e quickest way to become a listener.

DO NOT interrupt — It is just as rude to step on people’s ideas as it is to step on their toes.

DO NOT change the subject — Listening means wanting to hear.

EMOTIONS — Leaders should be aware of their own emotions, and be aware of the emotional undercur- rents in the environment. Emotions create a storm and others will back away.

RESPONSIVE listening — When people feel that their leader no longer listens or responds, they will go somewhere else.

Giving and Receiving Feedback

10 Common Performance Feedback Mistakes

1. Speaking out only when things are wrong. “Praise to a human being represents what sunlight, water and soil are to a plant — the climate in which one grows best.” — Earl Nightingale

2. ”Drive-by” praise without specifics or an honest underpinning. — “Great job!”

3. Waiting until performance or behavior is substantially below expectations before acting on it.

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4. Giving positive or negative feedback long aer the event has occurred.

5. Not taking responsibility for your thoughts, feelings, actions, and reactions. “is comes straight from the boss.”

6. Giving feedback through email messages, notes, or over the telephone.

7. Giving negative feedback in public.

8. Criticizing performance without giving suggestions for improvement.

9. No follow-up aerwards.

10. Not having regularly scheduled performance review meetings.

Four Tips for Effective Performance Feedback

1. Be proactive. Nip issues in the bud and avoid the messy interpersonal tangles that result from neglected communication. Meet with employees on a monthly or quarterly basis instead of annually. is lets them know that they are important to you and you care about their success.

2. Be specific. It is never easy to provide negative feedback regarding someone’s work, but as a leader you cannot avoid it. Be as clear as possible when providing feedback (both positive and negative). Give specific examples that illustrate your points. For example, instead of saying, “Your attitude is bad” or “at did not work,” you might say something like, “When you miss deadlines, then

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cross your arms and look away when I discuss it with you, it gives me the impression that you do not care about the quality of your work. I’d like to believe this isn’t true. Can you help me explain this better?”

3. Develop a progress plan. Tell them what specifically needs to change and when that change needs to occur. Schedule follow-ups to check on progress and then make sure you follow up as scheduled.

4. Link employee performance to organizational goals. Reinforce the value of your employees’ contributions by giving specific examples of how their work and positive behaviors serve the organization and its customers.

Receiving Feedback

Accept it in the spirit it is given. Do not become defensive or argue with the person. Do not try to justify your position. Just listen. Ask questions for clarification. If you think the person is right, say so and thank them. If not, just thank them.

Job Performance Feedback: 7 Tips for Receiving Feedback Gracefully

1. Welcome Constructive Feedback. Your powers of self- perception go only so far. People around you notice things, both good and bad, which you may or may not see and you might learn from their input. ere is a virtuous circle of feedback whereby the more you seek it, the less you can hide bad behavior. EBay seller feedback is an excellent example of a transparent feedback process that encourages positive behaviors.

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2. Do Not Justify Your Position. Telling the person why their feedback is wrong will not work. Arguing, justifying your position, or denying anything is wrong, are all powerful negative emotions that make conversations more challenging than they need to be. e results from this type of behavior are usually hurt feelings, and intense anger and distrust.

3. Do Accept Feedback At Face Value. Although the feedback might feel like a personal insult against you as a person, keep things in perspective. e feedback is usually about something specific that occurred which, now that you know about it, you can correct.

4. Do Not Ruminate on Feedback. Only cows need to ruminate before they digest. Chewing on, or thinking over and over again about feedback that is less than glowing will do nothing more than increase your feelings of resentment over receiving it. Avoid the temptation to re-enact the conversation with a friend as this only makes you feel ten times worse. Do talk about it with someone else, but make sure you are emotionally detached first.

5. Do Evaluate Feedback Before Responding. Feedback oen tells you more about the person saying it than it does about you. For example, a person who says you never praise their work might have difficulty evaluating their work themselves. Teaching this person to do a good self-evaluation of their own performance might be a better approach than you trying to praise them over and

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over again. In the long run, you will be doing them a favor by giving them a much needed boost to their self-esteem.

6. Do Not row Your Toys from the Pushchair. Sulking, stonewalling or withdrawing from the person giving the feedback is childish. If need be, give yourself some space from the person, allowing yourself time to calm down and deal with the feedback and person as a rational adult.

7. Do Make a Choice on How to Use the Feedback. Feedback can be a gi allowing you to grow and develop as a person in a job or in a relationship. On the other hand, some feedback is downright useless and best ignored. It is ultimately your choice how to act, or not, upon feedback received. For example, let’s assume you receive internal customer feedback saying you do not do “x” and they think you should. You actually have spent time consid- ering “x” and have determined that it is simply not cost-effective. ank them for the feedback, letting them know the history of what you have done and then ask how else you could meet their needs. Chances are they will be satisfied with your explanation and not notice that you did not respond directly to their feedback.

Communicating Non-Defensively 4

We are all naturally defensive to some degree, and it is no more apparent than in our communications with others.

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What can lead us and others we work with towards defensive communications?

How do defensive communications interfere with problem solving and dealing with performance issues?

If we learn how to communicate non-defensively and teach others to do the same, we can:

• Reduce interpersonal conflict.

• Help people communicate more openly and honestly.

Five Skills to Communicating Non-Defensively:

1. Disengage

• Back off from the situation.

• Take some time to think through the problem.

• Re-examine from a more objective viewpoint.

• Realize that it is probably not a personal attack.

2. Empathize

• Imagine yourself in the other person’s position.

• Consider other viewpoints. • Let the other person know that you understand their perspective.

3. Inquire

• Ask questions that allow you to learn more about the problem.

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• Get to the specifics of the issue.

• Encourage both sides to focus on a solution, not the defensive problem.

• Listen to all sides—use your active listening skills.

4. Disclose

• Reveal your own needs and concerns in a

non-defensive manner.

• Be honest and direct.

• Be attentive, but not overly apologetic.

• Make “I” statements.

5. Depersonalize

• Discuss the issue objectively.

• See your work as what you do, not who you are.

• As you change your behavior towards others,

you shape their response to you.

Why Might We Communicate Defensively?

• Low self-esteem—fear of being perceived as incompetent or fear of being criticized.

• Take the comments personally—assume the attack is personal rather than issue-based.

How Do People Respond to Defensive Communications?

• We shut down—fight back with passive aggression.

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• We respond defensively, which creates a defensive chain and the cycle continues.

• e defensive chain can ripple out to others in the organization.

–––––––––––– 4 Adapted from Communicating Non-Defensively, revised edition (1994). Carlsbad, CA: CRM Learning, L.P.

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Chapter 6

Project Management Leadership

Project-management tools help you prioritize and manage your work efforts.

Project Planning

Basic Project Planning and Management Steps

1. Analyze the project.

• Define the project • List Project Objective Statement • Should include criteria for project • Major deliverables for project • List the activities—develop Work Breakdown Structure • Consider your workforce/resources • Identify the time required for the activities

2. Determine a sequence for the project based on the activities involved, the workforce that will do the work, and the time required for the activities.

• Consider sequence-dependent activities (those tasks that must be done in sequence)

• Consider sequence-independent activities (tasks that can be done in parallel)

3. Estimate resources needed for the project.

• Consider your own internal resources • Obtain outside resources as required • Person doing the work must be the person estimating resources • Cannot estimate if you have no knowledge of how to do the job • Use efficiency factor: six work hours in an eight-hour day

4. Build a project management chart.

• PERT or Gantt Chart or Critical Path Method • Synchronization Matrix • Important to determine critical path • Use Forward Pass/Backward Pass methods

5. Communicate the plan.

• Your team, supervisor, and peers who also may be involved • Refine the plan as needed based on input • Use Network Communication Circle—free and open communications

6. Initiate the project.

• Organize the team • Provide leadership for the project

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7. Monitor progress.

• Refine the plan and adjust as needed based on the evolving situation

• Communicate updates as required to those who need to know

• Use effective decision making during the project

• When conflict arises, remember smoothing, avoiding, forcing, compromising, collaboration response styles

¤ Smoothing — focusing on the other person’s view while minimizing real differences; used when things get emotional or when faced with time constraints.

¤ Avoiding — refusing to confront the conflict; used in hostile situations, when you have a lack of authority to make decisions, or when someone else can do it better.

¤ Forcing — using your power to resolve an issue; used when you know a decision is outside the project scope, when there is potential for legal issues, or when facing major time constraints.

¤ Compromise — willing to make concessions; used when you need their support, when it will not have major impact on a project, when it is a no-win situation, or when you need something in return.

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¤ Collaboration — willing to work together to resolve issue; used whenever possible unless you know it will create legal or ethical issues.

¤ Your goal should be to collaborate whenever possible.

8. Complete the project.

• Conduct an Aer Action Review (AAR). is is a process to review what worked and did not work by asking simple questions such as:

1. What did we say we would do?

2. Did we accomplish this?

3. What worked well; and what should we do again? 4. What did not work well; and what should we discard in the future?

• Use the AAR results for continuous improvement in the workplace

• Determine Return on Investment (ROI) of project

• Use ROI Model:

A simple Return on Investment expresses the profitability of an investment in terms of a percentage of benefit on the original investment outlay.

Return on Investment = Net Benefit / Net Investment Cost x 100 In the ROI of data modeling, this would translate to:

Return on Investment = Net Savings Due to Data Modeling / Net Investment Cost in Data Modeling x 100

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For example, assume a savings due to data modeling of $500,000, and a data modeling cost of $250,000. e return on investment is 200%.

ROI does not consider the time value of money or the economic life of the project. is is the most basic ROI model. Depending on your audience, you may want to consider more pertinent models.

Deliberate Decision Making

e 7-Step Decision-Making Model

Step 1: Receive the Requirement

Requirements, tasks, missions, problems, ideas, questions, issues, etc., can come from anywhere. The challenge is to determine what you can readily solve and which ones require a deliberate decision-making process.

Step 2: Analyze the Requirement

• Describe and assess the operating environment. Possible considerations include the budget, existing plans, administrative requirements, environmental considerations, and any operational/logistical considerations.

• Identify facts and assumptions. A fact is what you know to be true. An assumption is what you think to be true, but need to verify before proceeding with the project.

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• Identify specified and implied tasks. Specified Task: stated in the requirement, usually the operational tasks. Implied Task: not stated, but tasks you will need to accomplish in order to fulfill the require- ment. Oen implied tasks are the support (logistical/environmental) tasks associated with the requirement.

• Identify constraints. Constraints can take the form of a requirement to do something (i.e., reduce costs by 10%) or a prohibition on action (i.e., no increase in overtime).

• Determine essential tasks. Highlight the specified or implied tasks that are essential in order to fulfill the requirement.

Step 3: Re-State the Requirement

Re-write/re-phrase the requirement in terms of what you need to do. Include the essential tasks in the re-stated require- ment. Include the “who/what/when/where/why” elements in the re-stated requirement.

Step 4: Develop Options

Develop two or three options. Options should be uniquely different from each other. Options often are based on the methods used to achieve the requirement (timeline, equipment involved, sequence of the operation, program management, etc.). Conduct a brainstorming session with your team. Good project managers will weigh options between both tasks and people. Failure to do so will usually result in making bad decisions.

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Step 5: Select the Best Option

Determine the best option and then make a recommendation. Use all the planning/decision-making tools. Sometimes the best decision is to simply go with your gut feel.

Explain your recommendation, providing a summary of your results and comparisons. When done, get the appropriate approval required to move forward.

Step 6: Implement the Best Option (A Written Plan)

• Situation. Describe the operating environment, your higher requirements, any additional assets available that are not normally assigned to your operation, and any nonvalidated assumptions.

• Re-state requirements. A concise statement of the project — who/what/when/where/why.

• Project Management. Project overview, project intent, project outcomes, sequence of operations/timetable, PERT/Critical Path Charts, and any contingencies, branches, sequels. Directed requirements/tasks (to your subordinate/adjacent units/departments).

• Logistical/Administrative Support. Includes Maintenance, Employee Relations/Safety, Contractors, Clerical, Permitting/Environmental, and any other support aspects to the project.

• Communications and Supervision. Includes flow of information, scheduled project updates, responsibili- ties of project manager, chain of command for the project.

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Step 7: Lead, Monitor, and Refine the Decision

• Provide appropriate leadership for the successful accomplishment of the project (mentoring, teaching, coaching, directing, consensus building).

• Monitor the project (time tables/synchronization matrix, project management tools, forecasting).

• Prioritize your efforts (use critical events developed during option development).

• Refine the project by forecasting potential problems. (If___ occurs, then we shi the plan to ___.) Do not spend much time if you need to make minor changes; but use a change order or deliberate decision-making process if major changes are needed.

Use project-management tools to help you prioritize and manage your work efforts.

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Chapter 7

Stress Management for Leadership

e art of stress management is to keep you at a level of stimulation that is healthy and enjoyable.

Managing Stress

Stress is a natural occurrence for most people as they conduct their jobs. Learning to manage stress is a leadership skill that you need to master. Make no mistake: unmanaged stress can kill you or, at a minimum, shorten your life. e physical impacts of stress are real, relevant, and something you, as a leader, must be able to recognize.

Managing stress helps you to:

• Perform at the peak of your abilities when under immense pressure.

• Produce good-quality work even when tasks are dull and repetitive.

• Improve the quality of your life, health and job.

• Avoid the problems of exhaustion, depression, ill health, burnout, and breakdown that are associated with excessive levels of long-term stress.

Consider stress to be anything that stimulates you and increases your level of alertness.

Life without stimulus would be incredibly dull and boring. Life with too much stimulus becomes unpleasant, tiring, and may damage your health or well-being. Too much stress can interfere seriously with your ability to perform effectively.

e art of stress management is to keep you at a level of stim- ulation that is healthy and enjoyable. Information provided here will help you to monitor and control stress so that you can find and operate at a level that is most comfortable for you. We will discuss strategies to reduce or eliminate sources of unpleasant stress. We also will explain what can happen when you do not control stress properly.

Most people realize that aspects of their work and lifestyle can cause stress. But also, it can be caused by your environment and by the food and drink you consume. ere are several major sources of stress:

• Survival stress: is may occur in cases where your survival or health is threatened, where you are put under pressure, or where you experience some unpleasant or challenging event. Here adrenaline is released in your body and you experience all the symptoms of your body preparing for fight or flight.

• Internally generated stress: is can come from anxiously worrying about events beyond your

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control. From a tense, hurried approach to life; or from relationship problems caused by your own behavior. It also can come from an addiction to and enjoyment of stress.

• Environmental and job stress: Here, your living or working environment causes the stress. It may come from noise, crowds, pollution, untidiness, dirt or other distractions. Alternatively, stress can come from events at work.

• Fatigue and overwork: Here, stress builds up over a long period. is can occur when you try to achieve too much in too little time, or where you are not using effective time-management strategies.

While a certain level of stress is necessary in order to avoid boredom, high levels of stress for a sustained period can damage your health. Note that as the stress you are under increases, your ability to recognize it oen decreases.

The 50 Proven Stress Reducers

Consider these proven stress reducers for both personal and on-the-job stress relief.

1. Allow 15 minutes of extra time to get to appointments. Arrive at the airport at least 90 minutes before domestic departures.

2. Allow yourself time—every day—for privacy, quiet time, and thinking.

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3. Always set up contingency plans—just in case. (If for some reason either of us is delayed, here is what we will do ___ .)

4. Ask questions. Taking a few moments to repeat directions or what you think someone wanted you to do can save hours.

5. Be flexible. Some things are worth not doing perfectly; some issues are best resolved with compromise.

6. Be optimistic. Most people are doing the best they can.

7. Be prepared to wait. A paperback, magazine, or e-book can make a wait in line almost pleasant.

8. Check your breathing throughout the day, especially before, during, and aer high-pressure situations. If you find your stomach muscles are knotted and your breathing is shallow, relax all your muscles and take several deep, slow breaths. Note how, when you are relaxed, both your abdomen and chest expand when you breathe. When feeling stressed, most people breathe in short, shallow breaths. When this occurs, stale air is not expelled, oxidation of the tissues is not complete, and the result is muscle tension.

9. Count your blessings. For every one thing that goes wrong there are probably 50 or 100 things that go right.

10. Do one thing at a time. When you are with someone, enjoy their company. When you are busy with a project, concentrate on doing that project and forget about everything else you have to do.

11. Do something for somebody else.

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12. Do something that will improve your appearance. Looking better can help you feel better.

13. Do not forget to take a lunch break. Get away from your desk or work area in body and mind, even if it is just for 15 or 20 minutes.

14. Do not put up with something that does not work correctly. If your alarm clock, wallet, shoelaces, windshield wipers—whatever—are a constant source of aggravation, get them fixed or get new ones.

15. Do not rely on your memory. Write down appointment times, when to pick up the laundry, and when library books are due. (“e palest ink is better than the most retentive memory.”)

16. Eliminate (or restrict) the caffeine and sugar in your diet.

17. Eliminate destructive self-talk: “I am too old to … ,” “I am too fat to … ,” etc.

18. Every day, do something you really enjoy. Such as: Before speaking in public, visualize every part of the experience in your mind. Imagine what you will wear, what the audience will look like, how you will present your talk, and how you will answer questions. Visualize the experience the way you want it to turn out.

19. Focus on understanding rather than on being understood and loving rather than on being loved.

20. Forget about counting to 10. Count to 100 before doing something or saying anything that could make matters worse.

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21. Get enough sleep. If necessary, use an alarm clock to remind you to go to bed.

22. Get up 15 minutes earlier in the morning. e inevitable morning mishaps will be less stressful.

23. Get up and stretch now and then if you have to sit for long periods in your job.

24. Have a forgiving view of things. Accept the fact that we live in an imperfect world.

25. If an unpleasant task faces you, do it early in the day and get it over with.

26. Inoculate yourself against a feared event. Just as vaccine containing a virus can protect you from illness, if you expose yourself to one or more of the dreaded aspects of an experience beforehand, you probably will feel less fearful.

27. Learn to delegate responsibility to others.

28. Learn to live one day at a time.

29. Make duplicates of all keys (label them!). Bury a house key in a secret spot in the garden; carry a duplicate car key in your wallet.

30. Make friends with non-worriers. Nothing can get you into the habit of worrying faster than association with a worrier.

31. Organize your home and workspace so that you always know exactly where things are. Put things away where they belong; you will not have the stress of trying to locate misplaced things.

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32. Plan ahead. Do not let the gas tank get below one-quarter full, keep a well-stocked emergency shelf or home staples and do not wait until you are down to your last postage stamp to buy more.

33. Practice preventative maintenance. Your car, appliances, home, and relationships will be less likely to break down or fall apart at the worst possible moment.

34. Prepare for the morning the evening before (e.g., set the breakfast table, make lunches, and lay out the clothes you plan to wear).

35. Relax your standards. e world will not end if the grass does not get mowed this weekend.

36. Say “no” to extra projects, social activities and invitations for which you know you lack the time or energy. is takes practice, self-respect, and a belief that everyone, every day, needs quiet time to relax and be alone.

37. Schedule a fun day. Allow plenty of “breathing time” between appointments.

38. Select an environment (work, home, leisure) that matches your personal needs and desires. If you hate to talk politics, do not associate with people who live the subject.

39. Simplify, simplify, simplify.

40. Take a refreshing bath or shower to relieve tension.

41. Take care of today the best you can. e yesterdays and tomorrows will take care of themselves.

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42. Talk it out. Discussing your problems with trusted friends can clear confusion.

43. ink “diversion.” When stress gets in the way of getting a job done, take a break. Refresh yourself with a change in activity and/or environment.

44. Try the following yoga technique whenever you feel the need to relax. Inhale deeply through your nose to the count of eight. en, with lips puckered, exhale very slowly through your mouth to the count of 16, or for as long as you can. Concentrate on the long sighing sound and feel the tension dissolve.

45. Turn needs into preferences. Our basic physical needs are food, water, and keeping dry and warm. Everything else is a preference. Do not get attached to preferences.

46. Turn off your phone if you want to take a bath, meditate, sleep, or read without interruption.

47. Use your weekend time for a change of pace. If your work week is slow and patterned, make sure there is action and time for spontaneity built into your weekends. If your work week is fast-paced and full of people and deadlines, seek peace and solitude during your days off.

48. Wear earplugs. If you need to find quiet, but Junior must practice the trombone, pop in some earplugs (available in any drugstore)—and smile.

49. Whatever you want to do tomorrow, do today; whatever you want to do today, do it now. Procrastination is stressful!

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50. Write your thoughts and feelings down in a journal (or on paper to be thrown away). is will help you clarify things and give you a new perspective on things.

Planning to Manage Stress

We operate best at an optimum stress level. Not having enough stress leaves us feeling bored and lethargic. Having too much stress damages our performance in the short term, and can lead to unhappiness, exhaustion, burnout and serious illness in the long term. It may not be obvious initially what causes you stress, whether you are effective in controlling it, or what your optimum stress level is.

Keeping a stress diary is an effective way to learn what causes your stress and what level of stress you prefer. In your diary, jot down your stress levels and how you feel throughout the day. In particular, jot down stressful events. After a few weeks you should be able to analyze this information. It may be interesting to note the outcomes of the jobs you were doing when you were under stress.

is should give you two types of information:

1. You should be able to understand the level of stress you are happiest with and the level of stress at which you work most effectively. You may find that your performance is good even when you feel upset by stress.

2. You should know what the main sources of unpleasant stress in your life are. You should understand what

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circumstances make stress particularly unpleasant, and you should begin to understand whether or not your strategies for handling the stress are effective.

Once you understand the level of stress under which you work most effectively, and know precisely

what is causing it, the next stage is to work out how to manage the stress.

It is probably worth keeping the diary only for a short period of time. You will find that the longer you keep the diary, the smaller the benefit of each additional day will be. If, however, your lifestyle changes or you begin to suffer from stress again in the future, it may be worth using the diary approach again. You probably will find that the stresses you face have changed. If this is the case, then keeping a diary again will help you to develop a different approach to dealing with them.

Once you understand the level of stress under which you work most effectively, and know precisely what is causing it, the next stage is to work out how to manage the stress. e best way of doing this probably will be to make an action plan of things that you are going to do when stress occurs. Some elements of this action plan will be actions you are going to take to contain, control or eliminate problems that are causing you stress. Other elements may be health-related, such as exercising more, changing your diet, or improving the quality of your environment. Another part of the plan may be to

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develop stress-management techniques that you will employ when stress levels begin to build.

Increasing Stress Levels—Psyching Up

When you are not feeling motivated about a task, either because you are bored by it or because you are tired, you may need to psych yourself up. is will increase your level of arousal so you can perform effectively.

You can use the following techniques to psyche up:

• Focus on the importance or urgency of the task.

• Set a challenge for yourself—i.e., to do the job in a particular time or to do it to a particularly high standard.

• Tell yourself—“I can feel energy flowing into me.”

• Break jobs down into smaller jobs, doing each part between more enjoyable tasks. Take satisfaction from the successful completion of each element.

Stress-Reduction Techniques

When choosing methods to combat stress, it is worth asking yourself where the stress comes from. If outside factors such as important events or relationship difficulties are causing stress, then a positive thinking- or imagery-based technique may be effective.

When stress and fatigue are long term, lifestyle and organi- zational changes may be appropriate. If the feeling of stress

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comes from adrenaline in your body, it may help to relax the body and slow the flow of adrenaline.

By anticipating stress, you can prepare for it and work out how to control it when it happens. is can be carried out in a number of ways:

• Rehearsal: By running through a stressful event such as an interview or a speech several times in advance, you can polish your performance and build confidence.

• Planning: By analyzing the likely causes of stress, you will be able to plan your responses accordingly. is might include actions to alleviate the situation or may be stress-management techniques that you will use. Regardless, it is important that you formally plan for this. It is of little use just worrying in an undisciplined way and will be counterproductive.

• Avoidance: When a situation is likely to be unpleasant and will yield no benefit to you, avoid it. But you should be certain this is the case.

A number of factors can make an event take on a high level of significance and cause stress:

• e importance and size of the event

• e prospect of a large financial reward, a promotion, or a personal advancement

• e presence of family, friends, or important guests.

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If stress is a problem under these circumstances, then think carefully about the event, and take every opportunity to reduce its importance in your eyes:

• If the event seems big, minimize it by comparing it to a bigger event you may have attended.

• If there is a financial reward, remind yourself that there may be other opportunities for reward later. Focus on the quality of your performance. Focusing on the rewards will damage your concentration and raise stress.

• If members of your family are watching, remind yourself that they love you anyway. If friends are real friends, they will continue to like you whether you win or lose.

• If people who are important to your goals are watching, remind yourself that you may well have other chances to impress them. People who are supportive and want to see you succeed will give you the benefit of the doubt.

If you focus on correctly performing your tasks then the importance of the event will dwindle into the background.

Uncertainty can cause high levels of stress. Causes of uncer- tainty can be:

• Not having a clear idea of what the future holds:

¤ Not knowing where your organization is going ¤ Not having any career development plans

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¤ Not knowing what will be expected from you in the future • Not knowing what your boss or colleagues think of your abilities. • Receiving vague or inconsistent instructions.

In these cases, lack of information or the actions of other people are negatively affecting your ability to perform.

e most effective way to counter this is to ask for the infor- mation you need. is might include asking for information about your organization’s performance. It may involve asking what your employer wants from you in the future so that you can set the appropriate career-development goals.

If you are unsure of how you are doing, ask for a performance review. When instructions are inconsistent or conflicting, ask for clarification. If you ask in a positive way, people are usually quite happy to help.

ought Awareness, Rational inking and Positive inking

ese three related tools are useful in combating negative thinking. Negative thinking causes stress because it damages your confidence that you are up to the task you face. Negative thoughts occur when you put yourself down, criticize yourself for errors, doubt your abilities, expect failure, etc. Negative thoughts also damage confidence, harms performance, and paralyzes mental skills.

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ought awareness is the process by which you observe your thoughts for a time, perhaps when under stress, and become aware of what is going through your head. It is best not to suppress any thoughts; just let them run their course while you observe them. Watch for negative thoughts while you observe your stream of consciousness. Normally these appear and disappear unnoticed.

Examples of common negative thoughts are:

• Worrying about how you appear to other people • A preoccupation with the symptoms of stress • Dwelling on consequences of poor performance • Self-criticism, feelings of inadequacy

Make a note of the thought and then let the stream of con- sciousness run on. ought awareness is the first step in the process of eliminating negative thoughts. You cannot counter thoughts you do not know you think.

Once you are aware of your negative thoughts, write them down and review them rationally. See whether the thoughts have any basis in reality. Oen you find that when you properly challenge negative thoughts they are obviously wrong. Oen they persist only because they escape notice.

You may find it useful to counter negative thoughts with positive affirmations. You can use affirmations to build confidence and change negative behavior patterns into positive patterns. You can base affirmations on clear, rational

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assessments of fact, and use them to undo the damage that negative thinking may have done to your self-confidence.

Examples of affirmations are:

• I can do this. • I can achieve my goals. • I am completely at peace with myself and people will like me for myself. • I am completely in control of my life. • I learn from my mistakes. ey increase the basis of experience from which I can draw. • I am a well-valued person in my own right.

Traditionally people have advocated positive thinking almost recklessly, as if it is a solution to everything. It should be used with common sense. No amount of positive thinking will make everyone who applies it an Olympic champion marathon runner (though an Olympic marathon runner is unlikely to have reached this level without being pretty good at positive thinking). Decide what goals you can realistically attain with hard work and then use positive thinking to reinforce these goals.

Physical relaxation techniques

ese are useful when stress is caused by physical processes in your body. Perhaps where muscles are tense, or where you are experiencing the effects of adrenaline. Exercising frequently is probably one of the best physical stress-reduction techniques

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available. Exercise not only improves your health and reduces stress caused by unfitness, but it also relaxes tense muscles and helps you to sleep.

Exercise has a number of other positive benefits you may not be aware of:

• It improves blood flow to your brain, increasing sugars and oxygen that may be needed when you are thinking intensely.

• When you think hard, the neurons of your brain function more intensely. As they do this they build up toxic waste products that cause decreased thinking in the short term and can damage the brain in the long term. By exercising, you speed the flow of blood through your brain, moving these waste products faster. You also improve this blood flow so that even when you are not exercising, waste is eliminated more efficiently.

• It can cause a release of chemicals called endorphins into your bloodstream. ese give you the feeling of happiness and well-being.

ere are a lot of wrong approaches to exercise. Many tradi- tionally recommended forms of exercise actually damage your body in the medium or long term. It is worth finding reputable and up-to-date sources of advice on exercise, possibly from a fitness specialist, and have them create a customized exercise plan for you. An important thing to

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remember is that exercise should be fun; if you do not enjoy it, then you probably will not keep doing it.

Deep breathing is a very effective method of relaxation. It is the core component of everything, including the take-ten-deep- breaths approach to calming down someone, as well as yoga relaxation and Zen meditation. It works well in conjunction with other relaxation techniques such as Progressive Muscular Relaxation, relaxation imagery, and meditation to reduce stress.

Techniques for Reducing Long-Term Stress

e main emphasis in the management of long-term stress is on adjusting your working methods and your lifestyle. Formal relaxation techniques have a part in this, but equally impor- tant are time-management skills, a positive attitude, a healthy diet with sufficient exercise and adequate rest, and a pleasant environment. Adjusting these things will improve the quality of your life as well as increase your resistance to stress.

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Chapter 8

Leadership Ethics

It is better to ask for permission than to ask for forgiveness

Ethical Choices

Ethical leaders are fair, consistent, and place the interests of their organization and team above their own. Ethical leaders exemplify solid ethical conduct for their entire team, all the time.

Ethical leadership requires us to consider our organizational values along with our personal ones as we conduct our business communications. Ethical leadership begins with identifying your own personal values and morals. You then need to know your organizational values or code of conduct. If your company does not have stated values or such a code, you should at least determine values and a code of conduct for your team.

Ethical decision making requires us to consider more than just the decision itself. It requires us to consider the choices available in terms of our business ethics. You first need to recognize if a moral or ethical conflict exists, and then you

have to evaluate alternatives from an ethical perspective in order to determine the right thing to do.

We frequently hear of an organization being accused of ethical misconduct. Almost all of these organizations had a code of ethics, detailed policies, and codes of conduct. But it is not the organization that behaved unethically. It was indi- viduals who misbehaved for one reason or another. In most circumstances, individuals, not organizations, make ethical choices, right or wrong.

Yet in most cases, we are not talking about bad people. It is usually good people who make bad choices.

A Self-Assessment

Consider these questions for a few moments.

In the last six months have you or someone you know:

• Called in sick when you/they actually were not? • Broken a confidence? • Ignored a policy or procedure? • Told a joke that might have offended someone? • Covered up a mistake made by someone else? • Covered up a mistake that you made? • Used an organization’s resources for personal use? • Received too much change when making a purchase and kept the extra money? • Made a copy of something without paying for it? • Told a little white lie?

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• Taken credit for someone else’s efforts? • Gossiped about someone in the office? • Fudged on an expense report? • Broke a “stupid” work rule? • Reproduced some personal documents on a printer or copier at work?

e ultimate leadership responsibility is modeling the behaviors you expect from others. To a large degree, you operate in a fishbowl. Employees are constantly watching you and learning from you. ey rightfully assume that it is okay to do whatever you do. Regardless of what is written or said elsewhere in the organization, your behavior is the performance standard employees will follow. at is a huge comes-with-the-territory responsibility. But it is also a great opportunity to be able to influence the ethics of your work unit and the entire organization.

Who is responsible for acting ethically? You are! It is not the company. It is not just the business owner. It is not only your manager. It is every person, regardless of position. Ultimately, each of us is responsible for our own actions, including being ethical. Considering the “3R’s” will point you and your em- ployees in the right ethical direction.

e first “R” of business ethics is RESPECT. It is an attitude that must be applied to people, organizational resources, and the environment. Respect includes behavior such as:

• Treating everyone (customers, co-workers, vendors, etc.) with dignity and courtesy.

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• Using company supplies, equipment, time, and money appropriately, efficiently, and for business use only.

• Protecting and improving your work environment, and abiding by laws, rules and regulations that exist to protect our world and our way of life.

e second “R” of business ethics is RESPONSIBILITY. You have a responsibility to your customers, your co-workers, your organization and yourself. Included are behaviors such as:

• Providing timely, high-quality goods and services.

• Working collaboratively and carrying your share of the load.

• Meeting all performance expectations and adding value.

e third “R” of business ethics is RESULTS. Understanding that the way results are attained—the means—is every bit as important, if not more important, than the ultimate goals— the ends. Using the phrase, “e end justifies the means” is an excuse too oen used to explain an emotional response or action that was not well-planned or carefully considered.

Obviously, you are expected to get results for your organization and customers. However, you are also expected to get those re- sults legally and morally. If you lose sight of this responsibility, you jeopardize your job, business and career.

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Values-based Decision Making

A values-based, decision-making template

1. Discuss the situation and describe the difference between behavior observed and behavior expected based upon your mission, vision, and values.

2. Explore why there might be a difference between what is observed and what is expected.

3. Differentiate between the symptoms of the problem (what you are seeing) and the problem itself (why it might be occurring).

4. Develop a strategy to address the problem(s) with the person and/or others involved in the situation.

5. Identify specific conversational actions you will take and how you will use your mission, vision, and values to address the situation. What are your core messages?

As a leader, you have the ultimate responsibility for your actions. You, and you alone, are responsible. You can never forget, that if you are a supervisor or manager, you need to provide the means that allow your people to act ethically. is is how an organization supports the ethical actions of its em- ployees.

Knowing what is ethical and what is not is essential. However, it’s far more difficult to do what’s right than to know what’s right. Doing the right thing is not always easy, but it is always right. It is a requirement for long-term success.

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e first step in doing what is right is to ask yourself if it meets ethical or moral guidelines before moving ahead or implement- ing a decision.

Use the questions below for guidance to test if a decision or action is ethical or moral. ese are similar to the guidelines for knowing what is right.

If you answer “no” to any of the questions, you should develop an alternate strategy, or seek counsel and advice from appropriate sources.

Do what is right: Will it pass the Ethical Action Test for ideas and actions? • Is it legal? • Does it comply with company rules and regulations? • Is it in sync with organizational values? • Will you be comfortable and guilt-free if you do it? • Is it in line with stated commitments and guarantees? • Would I do it to my family or friends? • Would it be OK for someone to do it to me? • Would the most ethical person you know do it? • How would this look on the front page of my local newspaper?

ese are practical and useful tests of your ideas and actions that will help you live up to your responsibility to be ethical and successful. However, you should not limit these to only your business dealings. Remember, acting ethically is not something you simply turn on and off. It is a part of everything you do.

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When In Doubt About Ethics Questions—ASK!

There is a common phrase in today’s business world that people use to justify their actions or determine ways to over- come the obstacles of bureaucracy, “red tape,” and move a project ahead. is phrase is: It is easier to ask for forgiveness than to ask for permission.

In the context of ethics, however, this statement is incorrect and could cause people to act unethically. When dealing with ethics, this concept would serve you best if you reversed it: It is better to ask for permission than to ask for forgiveness.

The reason for this is that the stakes in behaving ethically in business are very high. We see weekly, if not daily, news reports about how one or two people made poor ethical choices that caused disaster in their company. One poor decision could potentially impact hundreds, even thousands of people. When the results of the decisions you make have the potential to affect so many, it is better to ask for permission before you act.

The most important thing to remember is to keep asking until you get an answer.

You are expected to continually do what is right and ethical at work. ere are resources available to you (e.g. employee handbook, the organization’s mission, vision, and values;

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the values and attributes of leadership, etc.) to help meet that expectation. Use those resources when needed and obtain input from others whenever you can.

Whenever you are unsure if an action you are about to take is appropriate or not, ask a proper authority such as your boss, a senior manager, a mentor, the owner (if you work at a small company), someone in the Human Resources Department, or in the Legal Department for counseling. e most important thing to remember is to keep asking until you get an answer.

Business Ethics and Compliance

Business ethics involves a lot more than compliance with company policies, laws, and financial regulations. Most organizations do not have problems with people following these rules and regulations. Instead, it is the little things that cause problems. It is our day-to-day seemingly insignificant actions and behaviors that have the greatest chance of causing ethical issues.

e little things that we do every day can become so repeti- tious that we tend to forget we are even doing them. However, the “little things” we do can have a significant impact on people who observe these behaviors.

Remember, your behavior sets an example. Even if you are not the boss, there is always someone watching you for cues on how to act in certain situations — whether good or bad. ese observers may be your fellow workers, neighbors,

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spouse, or children. What messages are you sending by your actions, words and attitudes?

To help you examine your personal ethics and see where you stand and where you need to improve, consider the following:

• Little white lies you tell • Jokes you share • e way you treat and talk about co-workers • ings you say and do to make a sale • E-mails you write and those you forward • e way you handle customer complaints (including the number of people they get passed to) • What you put on your billing sheets, time sheets, and expense reports • Office supplies you take home • Commitments you do not keep • Personal business you conduct at work • Unimportant work rules you fail to follow • Non-work items you reproduce on the copy machine • Standards you set for yourself • e level of quality you put into whatever you do • Credit you share with others

ese and scores of additional behaviors like them reflect who you are and what you stand for. When it comes to ethics and integrity, everything is important — including (and especially) the small stuff.

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Know What Cannot be Compromised

Every business owner knows that there are some aspects of work that are discretionary and other aspects that must be followed exactly.

Discretionary areas of business are those situations where you and your employees have room to maneuver, compromise, bargain, and make deals as long as they are within certain pre-established boundaries.

Nondiscretionary areas are topics or situations with very specific rules and regulations that must be followed exactly as written and expected. Compromise or deviation are un- acceptable in these areas.

Safety is one nondiscretionary area that immediately comes to mind. ere are certain safety procedures that MUST be followed according to specific guidelines. Any exceptions to the rules could pose danger to workers. However, there are other areas where your employees may not have quite as clear of an understanding of what is ethically correct and what is not.

To act ethically, it is vitally important that you, as a leader, understand what actions fall into each area — discretionary or nondiscretionary. It is also important that you pass this understanding on to all team members as well as everyone else in the organization.

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Different organizations and businesses provide different guidelines on operational latitude. ese differences may be due to the responsibilities that employees have in performing certain jobs; or the job requirements themselves may permit only a certain procedure.

Universal Norms

However, there are several areas where zero tolerance for violations is allowed regardless of the organization. These universally accepted norms include:

• Laws and regulations • Public and employee safety • Truthfulness and accuracy of records and statements.

Stop and think about what would happen if you did not obey laws and regulations. In addition, most safety rules were created because injuries occurred or obvious danger existed in workplaces. Finally, business is based on trust and truth- fulness. If records and statements are not accurate, trust is lost.

Company-Specific Standards

Businesses may add specific policies and procedures they wish to enforce for the well-being of the company or to simply differentiate their company from competitors. In all cases, ethics simply cannot be compromised. As a leader, you must set the example to ensure that team members know what the ethical boundaries are.

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As a leader, you may be faced with a situation where an employee proposes an action or solution that you believe is not ethical or is outright wrong. What do you do? What do you tell the employee?

You may be tempted to do what is asked because you know the person or you feel obligated for some other reason. In any event, fight the temptation. Take a stand and say “NO,” but say it with tact and respect.

Do not accuse the other person of being unethical. Instead, use “I” statements to describe your feelings. State your objec- tion and concern without indicting them.

Here is how:

• I have serious concerns about that, and I need your understanding … • I honestly believe it is wrong because … • I cannot do what I feel is wrong …

Propose an alternate action that you feel is ethical.

• I think I know what you want to accomplish, and I feel there is a better way to do it. How about …

Ask for the person’s help and agreement.

• I really need your help. • I want to make sure we both do the right thing. • Will you go along with me on this one?

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Here are some words of wisdom from well-known individuals about this topic:

“Keep true, never be ashamed of doing right, decide on what you think is right, and stick to it.”

— George Elliot

“If you do not stand for something, you will fall for anything.” — Multiple sources

“To know what is right and not do it is the worst cowardice.” — Confucius

“Honesty is the cornerstone of all success, without which confidence and ability to perform cease to exist.” — Mary Kay Ash

“It is not who is right, but what is right, that is of importance.” — omas H. Huxley

Acting ethically sets an example. Others see your actions. Once the ethical barrier has been breached, others may assume it is appropriate to act unethically and improperly in any situation.

Knowing What is Ethical Takes On More Importance As Business Scandals Make Headlines

Investigations of many high-profile companies accused of unethical conduct show that most had elaborate policies or guidelines on ethics. e company did not break the rules. Instead, it was one or more individuals who did not follow

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the established policies and guidelines. Again, regardless of the code of ethics put into place, a key point to remember is that organizations do not make ethical decisions. Individuals do. A business or organization simply provides the environ- ment for people to act ethically and morally.

To help you determine if your actions are ethical, compare them to these six basic guidelines for ethical business operations.

1. Laws: Laws are created to help society function. Is the action you are considering legal? Do you know the laws governing the activity? In general, ignorance of a law is no excuse for breaking the law.

2. Rules and Procedures: Companies create specific policies and procedures to help ensure success of the business and to avoid problems. How does your planned action compare to what is stated in the company’s policies and procedures?

3. Values: ese social principles help to create society’s laws and a company’s policies and procedures. In turn, laws and policies reinforce the values. One example of values is to ask yourself: “Does the action I am considering follow not only the letter of the law, but also the spirit of the law?” Is your action in agreement with the overall purpose of a law or rule? Or are you attempting to find a loophole?

4. Conscience: is internal sense of right and wrong develops at an early age. Your conscience recognizes certain principles that lead to feelings of guilt if you

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violate the principles. Will your actions make you feel guilty? Can you truly justify your actions to yourself?

5. Promises: Business is based upon trust. It is the belief that you will deliver on what you say you will do. Will your actions live up to the commitment that you made to the other person (customer, client, supplier, employee, and employer) in the business relationship? Will your action build more trust?

6. Heroes: Every person has at least one individual who is a role model in some way. A hero may be a parent, teacher, coach, mentor or friend. Is your action something that your hero would do in the same situation? How would your hero act?

Using these six guidelines, along with the other information contained in this section, will help you in your decision making and ensure that your actions are legal, ethical, and follow your organization’s standards and procedures.

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Chapter 9

Time Management and Delegation

Planning can help ensure that you focus your time and efforts on tasks critical to your goals instead

of on tasks that have little to no effect on the desired outcomes.

Time Management

Perhaps one of the biggest challenges you will have as a leader is to manage your time effectively. You will be pulled in several directions on a daily basis, typically all at the same time. Between the office requirements, your team needs, and the organizational demands, you will be hard-pressed to get everything done.

Effective time-management skills can help you deal with the day-to-day demands and help lower stress, which is an important supervisory consideration as you make your lead- ership transition. In this section, we will discuss what time management means and offer several practical tools that can help you to better manage your time and perhaps even manage your life.

Prioritization

Prioritization is an essential task needed to make the best use of your team’s efforts.

It is more important when time is limited and demands are unlimited.

With good prioritization, you can bring order to chaos, reduce stress, and complete essential tasks.

Prioritization based on project value or profitability is the most commonly used.

Time constraints are important when other people are depend- ing on you to complete a task.

Pressure from other sources to complete a job generally ranks higher over other tasks.

General Tips and Techniques for Improving Your Time Management

• Clear your desk and plan your activities for the next day.

• First, list your time-specific items, such as meetings, and then write down the tasks you have to complete.

• Once you have prioritized your tasks, make a “to do” list and work through the items in order of priority.

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• Ensure that you have given yourself sufficient time to complete your to do list, taking into account your daily interruptions.

• Complete difficult jobs first, when you are at your best. Attend to minor jobs when you are tired.

• Set deadlines for all jobs and stick to them. A task should take only the time set aside for it.

• Do not postpone important matters that are unpleasant. Jobs rarely get more pleasant by being postponed. Do them now!

• Try to arrange set times for routine jobs such as going through the mail, talking with your manager or staff, computer input, etc.

• Try to set up times when you are not to be disturbed for anything other than emergency purposes.

• Plan your telephone calls. Make a brief note of what you want to say and what you want to find out. It saves time later.

• If you have several phone calls to make, make them all in the same pre-allotted time frame.

• When you start a job, try to finish it without interruptions. If you have to finish it later, you will lose time picking up where you le off.

• Arrange your breaks at times when you cannot work effectively.

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• Plan some time for discussing routine matters with your colleagues. en you avoid interrupting each other all the time.

• Learn to say “No.” Get used to asking yourself, “Am I the right person for this job?”

• Monitor how you use your time and make conscious changes to your behavior.

• Stress and fatigue are rarely caused by the things you have done, but by the thought of what you have not done!

• Make it a habit to finish the most important job of the day before you go home.

How Planning Helps You to Use Your Time Effectively

Planning can be considered an investment in efficiency and success. Planning is the process by which you work out what you want to achieve, and then think through the who, what, when, where, why and how achieving that goal in the most effective way possible.

Planning can help ensure that you focus your time and efforts on tasks critical to your goals instead of on tasks that have little to no effect on the desired outcomes.

Planning can be broken down into two main categories: personal planning, which is best done by setting goals, and project planning, which is best achieved by a formalized application of the planning process.

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Goal setting is a formal process of setting personal targets in a number of areas. e process of setting goals on a routine basis helps you decide what you want to achieve with your time and then establish precise personal strategies for achieving this.

Setting goals has the additional benefit of raising your self- confidence by allowing you to recognize your ability and competence when you achieve your goal.

To-do lists are simply a way of organizing your day effectively by ranking tasks in order of importance. ey are lists of tasks relevant to the daily goals that could encompass specific targets you have for the day or simply the efficient use of your time.

Even though to-do lists are simple by nature, they can be powerful when used to organize your day, which will help reduce your levels of stress.

Problems oen can seem too large or you may simply feel overloaded with the number of demands on your time. is can leave you feeling hopeless and lost. e solution is oen as simple as writing each task down and then breaking it into smaller subtasks. If still too large, break it down again. Then prioritize all of the tasks and subtasks by order of importance. By doing this, it will allow you to separate those truly important jobs from those trivial, everyday tasks, thereby giving you more control over your day and reducing stress.

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Delegation

Delegation involves passing responsibility for the completion of work to other people. is section examines the reasons why you should delegate, how to delegate, what happens when you fail to delegate, and what should not be delegated. Delegation is useful for the following reasons:

• Once people learn how to work with you, and learn what you do, they can take responsibility for jobs you do not have time to do.

• It allows you to develop people to look aer routine tasks that are not cost-effective for you to do.

• It transfers work to people whose skills in a particular area may be better than yours, thereby saving time and unnecessary effort.

• Transferring responsibility develops your staff and can increase their job satisfaction.

Your goal as a manager should be to let your staff carry out those routine activities that normally take up most of your day. is will leave you time to do those more important tasks critical to your organization’s success.

How to Delegate

e following points may help you in delegating jobs:

• Deciding what to delegate: One way of deciding what to delegate is to create a list of everything that you do. en rate each item according to the order of

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importance, the time it takes to accomplish each, and the return on investment for your time. ose tasks ranked the lowest in each category should then become the items that you begin to delegate.

• Select capable, willing people to carry out jobs: How far down the line you delegate jobs will depend on the ability, experience and reliability of your people. Good people will be able to carry out large jobs with no intervention needed. Inexperienced or unreliable people will need close supervision, coaching, and mentoring to help improve their abilities to carry out larger and more important tasks in the future.

• Delegate complete jobs: It is much more satisfying to work on a task as a whole than to simply be delegated fragments of it. is helps ensure completeness of the job as well as continued pride and responsibility for the person to whom you delegated the task.

• Explain why the job is important and what the expected outcomes are: When you delegate a job, explain how it fits into the overall picture of what you are trying to achieve. Ensure that you effectively communicate:

¤ e importance of the job ¤ e results that are expected ¤ e constraints within which the job must be performed ¤ e deadlines for completion ¤ Dates when you want progress updates

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• en let go: Once you have decided to delegate a task, let the person you delegated the task to get on with it. Check in with them periodically, but do not constantly look over their shoulders. Recognize and accept the fact that they may know a better way of doing something than you do. If they make a mistake, that is okay as long as it was not because of poor work practices or simply not doing the job. Mistakes are a great way for them to learn and grow.

• Help and coach when requested: It is important to support your subordinates when they are having difficulties, but do not do the job for them. If you do, then they will not develop the confidence to do the job themselves. Simply offer suggestions when they come to you seeking help.

• Accept only finished work: You have delegated a task in order to take things off your plate. Accepting partially completed jobs will do nothing more than fill your plate again and deny the persons to whom you delegated the task the experience they needed to complete the task.

• Give credit when a job has been completed: Public recognition builds the pride and confidence of the person who carried out the task and sets a standard for other employees to follow.

Despite the many advantages of delegation, some leaders do not delegate. is can be for the following reasons:

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• Lack of time: Delegating jobs takes time. Initially, you will need to invest time in training people to do the tasks you are delegating to them. You also will have to devote time to check on them, monitor their progress, and answer their questions. Ultimately, until they learn how to do the task, it probably will take longer than if you completed the task yourself. However, eventually you will realize a return on the investment of your time when a well-trained staff is able to help out when needed.

Most people will, with time, learn to do jobs correctly.

• Perfectionism—fear of mistakes: Just as you have to develop staff to do jobs without your involvement, you will have to let people make mistakes, and then help correct them. Most people will, with time, learn to do jobs correctly.

• ey enjoy getting their hands dirty: By doing jobs yourself you probably will get them done efficiently. But if doing this job takes work away from your team or takes you away from more important things that you should be doing, then your entire department will suffer. In addition, you will be sending the message that you do not trust them to do anything.

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• Fear of surrendering authority: Whenever you delegate, you surrender some element of authority (but not of responsibility!) is is inevitable. By delegating, however, you get the benefits of having adequate time to do YOUR job well.

• Fear of becoming invisible: When your department is running smoothly, it may appear that you have nothing to do. is is the time for you to think, plan, and improve your department’s process (and possibly even plan your next career move).

• Belief that staffers are not up to the job: Good people oen will underperform if they are bored. Delegation will oen bring the best out in them. People who are not so good will not be effective unless you invest time in them. Even seemingly incompetent people can be effective provided they find their niche. e only people who cannot be delegated to are those with super inflated egos.

It is common for people who are newly promoted to managerial positions to have difficulty delegating. They often have been promoted because they were good at what they were doing in their old job. e temptation then is for them to continue doing their old job instead of trying to learn their new one. is robs their subordinates of the opportunity to learn new tasks and grow their own careers, so avoid this at all costs.

While you should delegate as many tasks as possible, especially those that are not cost-effective for you to carry out, ensure that

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you do not delegate control of your team. Remember that you bear the ultimate responsibility for the success or failure of your team.

Steps in Delegation

Introduce the task Demonstrate clearly what needs to be done Ensure understanding Allocate authority, information, and resources Let go Support and monitor

Introduce the Task

1. Determine tasks to be delegated

• ose tasks you completed prior to assuming your new role • ose tasks your delegatees have more experience with • Routine activities • ose tasks outside the scope of your expertise

2. Determine tasks to retain • Supervision of subordinates • Long-term planning • Tasks only you can do • Assurance of program compliance • Dismissal of employees, performance counseling, etc.

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3. Select the delegatee

• Look at individual strengths and weaknesses • Determine interest areas • Determine need for development of delegatee

Demonstrate Clearly

1. Show examples of previous work 2. Explain objectives 3. Discuss timetable, set deadlines

Ensure Understanding

1. Clear communications 2. Ask for clarification 3. Secure commitment 4. Do not say “no” to them 5. Collaboratively determine methods for follow up

Allocate … Authority, Information, Resources

1. Grant authority to determine process, not desired outcomes 2. Provide access to all information sources 3. Refer delegatee to contact all individuals or specific resources that have assisted previously 4. Provide appropriate training to ensure success

Let go …

1. Communicate delegatee’s authority 2. Step back, let them work

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3. Use constrained access 4. Do not allow for reverse delegation

Support and Monitor 1. Schedule follow-up meetings 2. Review progress 3. Assist, when requested 4. Avoid interference 5. Publicly praise progress and completion 6. Encourage problem solving

Delegation Stressors

Loss of control? If you train your subordinates to do a task the same way you would yourself, then they will be exercising your control on your behalf.

Too much time spent on explaining tasks? e amount of time spent up front can be burdensome. But, continued use of delegation may free you up to complete other tasks and/or gain you some time for yourself to plan and think ahead.

Compromising your own value? By delegating appropriately, your value to the group/organization will grow at a greater rate because you will have more time to do more of the key leadership things.

Consequences of Poor Delegating

• Information and decision making not shared by the group

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• Leaders burn out

• When leaders leave groups, no one has experience to carry on

• Group morale becomes low and people become frustrated and feel powerless

• e knowledge and skills of the group/organization are shared by only a few people

• New members do not find ways to contribute to the work of the group.

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Chapter 10

Leading Change

Communicate on a regular basis, even if there is little to say.

Why Change?

Whether you are talking about re-engineering your business, restructuring your organization, promoting cultural transfor- mation, or keeping pace with your industry, you are talking about change. As you go through change processes, you will learn why change initiatives fail and will become familiar with the challenges of change.

ere are three stages of change leadership: establishing a sense of urgency, putting together the change coalition, and developing the change vision. As you master these skills as a leader, you will have a clear idea of what it takes to initiate the change process in a manner that ensures success.

Change is inevitable, and the rate at which society has been changing has grabbed headlines for many years. Nations around the world are experiencing dramatic shifts in their political, economic and social structures.

Even in our daily lives, we are being inundated with informa- tion from the news media, advertising, and the World Wide Web. e amount of information available to us is staggering. This has led some to believe that we have moved from the Information Age to the Knowledge Age. ey say that because of that, we are so immersed with information, there is a great need to figure out an effective way to filter information that has value from that which is meaningless.

e defining characteristic of the Knowledge Age is perpetual change. Unlike previous transformations, the move to the Knowledge Age is not a period of change followed by stability. It comes packaged with continuous change on an accelerating time cycle. is means that the kinds of knowledge that will serve individuals and our society are constantly evolving.

Consider these facts: One of the key skills of effective leaders is the ability to create and lead change. When change is completed effectively, the organization adapts, learns, and achieves its goals. However, all too oen, change efforts fail because they’re met with resistance and fear. Change can be as minor as relocating to a different office or as major as rapid growth or downsizing.

ese tips and tools will help you prepare for and lead effective change.

1. Create a clear vision. Define where you want to be. Do the necessary work to fully commit to the change.

2. Build a case for change. State where you are now versus where you need to be. Build a compelling case as to

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why change is needed. Change causes stress and dis comfort because of the unknowns that come with it. Build excitement, commitment, and awareness of the need for change. en gather support and gain agreement for your vision of the future.

3. Build a powerful guiding coalition. Identify those people that will help you gain commitment for the change. As a team, brainstorm ideas and formulate strategies on how you will overcome barriers to the change. Plan out those steps necessary to transition through the period of change.

4. Clarify roles. Make sure that each person fully understands their role in the change process and feels appreciated for their contribution.

5. Make sure you have the right players. Select those people who are open to change. Support them with the necessary training and resources.

6. Encourage constant open communication. Communicate your progress to the organization as well as what the next steps are on a regular basis. Feedback needs to occur at all levels: up, down, and laterally.

7. Encourage risk taking and brainstorming. Respect differences and test out new ideas and methods. Keep what works and get rid of what does not.

8. Sustain your belief in the change effort. Believe in the change effort and communicate that belief through your actions and words.

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9. Be prepared for the normal emotional reactions to change. Change can create instability, anxiety, conflict, and fear of the unknown. Lead people through this field of emotions by expressing empathy and using flexible leadership tactics.

10. Celebrate success. Acknowledge short term gains and communicate the successful change efforts.

Resistance to Change

10 Good Reasons Why People Resist Change and the Strategies to Overcome the Resistance 5

1. Surprise: People oen resist change because they have had little time to mentally prepare for it.

• Do not wait until all the decisions have been made before announcing them to an unsuspecting work group.

• Give advance notice and build commitment from the beginning.

• Include employees in the planning phase.

• Prepare and disseminate the vision as early as you can.

2. Self-Doubt: When faced with change, people oen ask, “Can I do this?”, “Do I have the skills?” or “Will I have to start all over again?” Feelings of inadequacy can undermine self-confidence which can lead to people holding on to that which is familiar.

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• Provide additional training to employees.

• Provide opportunities to practice new skills.

• Maintain an open environment for asking questions and receiving feedback.

3. Loss of Control: When people feel they have no power over decisions that affect them, they may become over-controlling in order to grasp something they can control—their refusal to adapt to the change.

• When practical, provide the opportunity for the employees to make choices.

• Involve employees in the change process from the start.

• Provide a continuous flow of information; do not wait until the end.

4. Debilitating Uncertainty: Uncertainty about what changes will bring is an inherent part of the change process. When uncertainty becomes overwhelming, it can cause too much discomfort and become too dangerous to allow for the possibility of change.

• Form a clear and concise vision.

• Build milestones into the schedule. • Leaders must set the example by taking the first steps themselves.

5. Disruption of Routines: With change, known routines and habits are thrown into turmoil, which can cause

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people to make mistakes on tasks they previously performed effortlessly and error-free.

• Do not change what does not need to change.

• Have and publish a change management plan.

• Maintain familiar work surroundings.

• Avoid wild changes that simply symbolize the new way.

6. Loss of Face: People oen infer that accepting changes means accepting that the way things were done in the past was wrong. To avoid looking stupid, people may feel they have to defend the old system. Unfortunately, leaders oen try to sell changes by pointing out the failures of the old methods.

• Listen to the concerns.

• Do not sell the change by making the old system look bad. Simply make the new approach look better.

• Use employee experience and knowledge to develop new and better methods — build upon past success.

7. Increased Workload: Change oen requires more energy, more time—simply more work! e extra work alone can cause resistance.

• Communicate with families if extra work time is involved.

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• Give credit and recognition if additional work time is required.

• Establish a reward system for the contributions, not just the additional time.

• Make certain that expectations match capabilities.

• Provide additional resources when needed.

8. Dangers are Real: Some change may create winners and losers—sometimes people will lose status or even their jobs as a result of the change. People oen ask “how will this change affect me?” and the answer may very well be negative.

• Leaders must be candid and open regarding the dangers associated with the change.

• Do not make false promises.

• If some will be affected negatively, let them know as soon as you can.

• Bad news does not get better with age.

9. Institutional Memory: Past negative experience with similar changes or unresolved issues can fuel resistance. People may ask “Have we not done this (unsuccessfully) before?”

• Listen to your employees, both as individuals and in groups.

• Empathize with differing viewpoints.

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• Provide outs for those unwilling/unable to cope with the new change (e.g. layoff packages, early retirements, transfers, etc.).

10. Personal Disruption: Resistance to change may be the result of things that are not job-related. Changes in the workplace can disrupt family routines or personal plans; people may resist in order to maintain order outside of the workplace.

• Leaders must be sensitive to disruptions caused by the change initiative.

• Develop ways to meet those employee needs previously satisfied by the old ways.

• Work with employee schedules.

• Allow some grieving time for the loss of the past.

Eight Common Errors Associated with Change Initiatives

1. Not establishing a great enough sense of urgency.

2. Not creating a powerful enough guiding coalition.

3. Lack of vision.

4. Undercommunicating the vision.

5. Not removing obstacles to the new vision.

6. Not planning for and creating short-term wins.

7. Declaring victory too soon.

8. Not anchoring changes in the organization’s culture.

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Sustaining Change

Promote a sense of curiosity within the organization. Never be satisfied with the current level of organizational knowledge.

Look and listen for current trends and knowledge. Keep your vision focused forward. Do not use team concepts to make everyone a generalist.

Build on unique skills and encourage learning across the board. Allow people to take a try-it-and-learn approach.

Leaders must look beyond today and reach for tomorrow. By focusing too much effort on today’s customers and their needs, future customers will go unheard and opportunities will be lost.

Look for meta-routines by asking “Why are we doing this? Why are we doing it this way?” Leadership is essential in order to build, nurture, and sustain core capabilities.

Barriers to Effective Change

e Six Barriers to Change

1. No compelling case for change:

• Failing to paint the right picture of the future state

• Poor employee involvement and discussion

• Failing to build up the case for change over time— too rushed

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• Failing to share key data with employees—lack of transparency

2. Not understanding what change is:

• Failing to see change as a journey, not a single event

• Oversimplified view of getting the change out the way

3. Little or no employee involvement:

• Failing to involve employees in feedback sessions

• Failing to involve employee teams in optimizing solutions and developing implementation plans that will work

4. Ownership confusion:

• Failing to clearly establish who is responsible for what and who is making the decisions

5. Ineffective implementation:

• Viewing implementation as the easy part

• Failing to clarify who is coordinating implementation

• An unclear transition plan of roles and responsibilities

• Poor alignment of the senior team around leadership behaviors

• Poor communication leads to confusion about what is happening, and when

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6. Perpetuating “the way we do things here” too long:

• Failing to see the impact of the wider sector or economic environment

• Good times may have masked some less-than- effective management practices

Leading Change

Step 1: Establish a sense of urgency

• Overcome complacency. A compelling need has to be developed and shared. Visible crises catch peoples’ attention and drive up the urgency levels.

• Make a clear case for change, approved at the appropriate level. • Create the right climate for change—lay the groundwork with stakeholders to create an initial sense of involvement and engagement with the challenge.

• Establish an understanding of the time needed, even if it is not fully defined.

• Provide an understanding of the consequences of not changing.

Step 2: Create a guiding coalition

• Power and credibility: To legitimize change (critical mass), ability to reward/confront.

• Pain and sacrifice: Personal stake. Pursue change despite personal needs.

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• Expertise: Informed and intelligent decision making.

• Public/private role: Commitment and ability to support change publicly/meet privately with agents.

• Pitfalls: Avoid those who create mistrust or put their own immediate interests above the greater goal.

• Who is accountable and approves changes?

• Who is responsible as leader of the change process?

• How will stakeholders be involved?

• Clarify the difference between line responsibility and support.

• R.A.C.I.

¤ Who is Responsible? What are they responsible for?

¤ Who is Accountable? Do people understand this?

¤ Who will be Consulted (before decisions are made)?

¤ Who will be Informed (aer decisions are made)?

• Identifying and involving “change champions.”

Step 3: Develop a vision and strategy

Vision: Develop, articulate, and communicate a shared vision of the desired change that is:

• Imaginable — Creates a picture

• Desirable — Appeals to the long-term interest

• Feasible — Realistic and attainable

• Focused — Clearly guides decisions

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• Flexible — Allows for changing conditions

• Communicable — Explained in five minutes.

Step 4: Communicate the vision

• Keep it simple. Lose the jargon. Create verbal pictures.

• Lead by example. Your behavior speaks loudly and clearly.

• 2-Way: Listen and share. Recognize that everything you say and do is part of the communication process.

• Develop a communication plan that includes how and when you will tell people what, and by which medium. Be as open as you can and tell the truth, even if this means saying you do not know or cannot say. Communicate on a regular basis, even if there is little to say. It is much more important to keep the regular channels open than to only say what you need to say when you need to say it. Seek feedback at every opportunity to encourage involvement.

• It is important to build and maintain a project plan for any change project. Include major tasks, deliverables, timeline, who does what, risk assessment, logistical issues, etc. A general project planning process is critical.

Step 5: Empower Employees

• Senior managers are the driving force and must walk the talk.

• Deploy the vision and motivate the masses.

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• Target resistance, measure readiness, and assess existing people/structures.

• Develop, train, reinforce, and support.

• Create a culture of empowerment, trust, and support.

• Set up measurement processes with clear targets.

• Focus on dealing with problems and potential roadblocks.

Step 6: Generate short-term wins

• Plan for and create regular wins.

• Recognize and reward people who facilitate the wins. • When momentum builds, resistance declines.

Step 7: Consolidate Gains

• Use increased credibility to change other systems that do not fit the vision.

• Hire, promote, and develop people who implement the change vision.

• Reinvigorate the process with new projects, themes, and change agents.

Step 8: Anchor new approaches

• May involve turnover.

• Maintain clear focus.

• Cultural change comes last, not first.

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• Embrace and overcome the resistance.

• Respect those who resist.

• Continue reinforcement of the shared vision.

• Reinforce behaviors in others.

• Recognize and take the best of the past with us.

• Celebrate victories as a team.

• Create realistic yet challenging goals and objectives.

• Maintain a strong sense of “we will succeed or fail together.”

–––––––––––– 5 Adapted from James O.B. Keener’s 1999 booklet, 10 Good Reasons Why People Resist Change: And Practical Strategies that Win the Day. Grand River, IW: Grand River Pub.

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Chapter 11

Performance Management

Dealing with problem behavior is one of the greatest challenges you will have in your career.

Identifying and Solving Performance Problems

Managing performance on a day-to-day basis is essential in order to provide your team the leadership that motivates, inspires, and cultivates high-quality performance. Conflicts and problems are common to most teams. Dealing with these issues through problem solving, corrective action, and per- formance counseling will help you achieve the most from your team and subordinates.

Discipline exists when employees follow or fail to follow established policies and procedures. Employees need to know what is expected of them as well as the outcomes of not complying with set expectations. is allows employees to practice self-discipline, or to act accordingly out of self-interest and a desire to meet these standards.

Positive discipline is the act of holding employees accountable in a way that encourages improved performance, learning, and growth. It is not meant to punish unless repeated poor

performance occurs. Supervisors play a crucial role in the positive discipline process. Employees oen take their cues from their supervisor’s actions. If the supervisor fails to emulate what is expected of their employees, the impact of positive discipline will be greatly reduced.

Analyzing and Solving Job-Performance Problems

Dealing with problem behavior is one of the greatest challenges you will have in your career. Many of us will avoid these issues as long as we can and often longer than we should. People can be unique, complex, and unpredictable. A major reason why we avoid dealing with these issues is because we have probably experienced failed attempts to change someone’s behavior in the past and then had to experience the defen- siveness and aggressiveness that oen accompany attempts to deal with performance problems.

One of the main reasons why our attempt to correct poor performance fails is because we do not take the time to identify the root cause of the issue. Reasons for such failures include:

• We oen react according to our biases or assumptions about human nature.

• We act out of emotion and oen become the aggressor instead of the mediator, which in turn, causes employee defensiveness.

• We lay total blame on the employee without taking into account the fact that maybe they just did not understand or did not have the information they

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needed. It could even have been the result of a poor job design.

e good news is that there are techniques available to help us analyze these problems. We now present the steps necessary to analyze and solve job-performance issues.

Problem Analysis—Focus Areas

Employees not doing what they should be doing:

1. What is the performance discrepancy? What is different about what they are doing versus what they should be doing? Why am I upset and what is causing me to feel this way?

2. Is it important? What would happen if I did nothing? Will doing something to resolve the discrepancy lead to worthwhile results or could my actions result in unintended consequences?

3. Is it a skill deficiency? Could the person do the task under stricter requirements or with improved efforts? Are the person’s skills adequate for the desired performance?

4. Have they done it before? Could it be that their skills became rusty and they need to be retrained?

It is a skill deficiency:

1. How oen do employees have to perform this particular task? Have they ever been given feedback on their performance?

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2. Is there a simpler solution? Can I change the job somehow? Could I do something as simple as an informal training to solve the problem?

3. Is the person capable of performing this task? Do they have the mental and physical skills necessary to complete it?

It is not a skill deficiency:

1. What is the consequence of performing as expected? Do the employees’ efforts go unnoticed? Do they perceive that they are being punished for performing as expected? Do the employees even know and understand what their expectations are? What would happen if they performed better?

2. Is nonperformance rewarded? What is the consequence of doing it the present way or not doing it at all? Does this result in punishment or perceived rewards? Am I doing something that actually encourages the present way of doing things?

3. Does performing really matter to them? Are there any favorable outcomes (satisfaction) for performing or undesirable outcomes (counseling) for not performing?

4. Are there obstacles to performing? What prevents this person from performing? Does he/she know what is expected and when? Are there conflicting demands? Does he/she lack the time or authority to do the job? Am I standing in their way?

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What should I do now?

When all meaningful solutions have been identified, the next step is to determine which solution is the best one. Ask your- self which solution addresses the real problem. What is the cost of the solution and is it even feasible to do it that way? What is the ease of implementation? Once you have identified the solution(s) that best aligns with both employee capabilities and organizational goals, make it happen.

Performance Management Steps

Step 1. What is the performance discrepancy?

Behavior is rarely just a random act. It is helpful to think of all behavior as cause-motivated and goal-directed. When dealing with performance problems, think about problems objectively as differences between what people do and what someone wants them to do. Unfortunately we oen take the simplistic view that we have to teach them a lesson or they must change their behaviors.

First, think about what are the indicators of the problem. ese include:

• ey are not doing it the way they are supposed to. • Absenteeism is too high. • e supervisors are not motivated.

It is important to distinguish between a discrepancy and a deficiency. Discrepancies seemingly exist all the time. However, it is important that you resist jumping to conclusions without first determining if it is a true discrepancy or a deficiency.

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Once you determine it is a discrepancy, it is important to identify and understand its nature. What is the real problem? What we oen think is the problem is just the symptom of a problem. Being late or absenteeism is oen a symptom rather than a problem. Clearly, if one is going to spend a lot of time and effort solving a problem, it is critical that the true problem is identified. Be clear on where there is a deviation from a standard. Identify how the problem affects others in the organ- ization. Be clear about who is responsible for the problem.

Be careful not to jump to a solution too quickly. We oen hear a manager say, “We have a training problem.” at is no differ- ent from a doctor saying “we have an aspirin problem.” While that may be the solution, it usually is not the problem. Again, do not jump to conclusions until you have identified the true problem.

Step 2: Is it important?

People perceive things differently (such as long hair, piercings). Ask yourself what the consequence would be if you le the prob- lem alone. Try to calculate the cost or size of the discrepancy.

This involves assessing the consequences of performance discrepancies. Some areas to consider:

• Direct cost, intangible cost, time, material waste, equipment damage, accuracy, accidents, lost business, duplicated effort, extra supervision.

• Does the size of the gap between the actual and desired performance levels warrant any action to take place?

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• What is the cost of eliminating the discrepancy?

If, after taking into consideration all of the above, the best solution is still to do nothing, then drop it. If the consequences of doing nothing are too large, then follow the same steps you did when conducting your problem analysis.

Determine if the deficiency is a result of:

• A skills deficiency • Not using the skill oen enough • Too complex of an issue • Not having what it takes to complete the job • Perception of being punished for desired performance • Rewarding nonperformance • Perception that performing just does not matter • Obstacles to performing

If not, then the deficiency is most likely the result of a failure to perform. You have a job performance issue that must be dealt with accordingly, up to and including discipline. Your next course of action is to conduct a root-cause analysis to determine the reasons for the poor performance. The next section covers steps to take that will help with this determi- nation.

e Disciplinary Action Process

e first step to take when it becomes apparent that a discipli- nary action may be warranted is to conduct a pre-discipline interview. Bear in mind the following:

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• Make the purpose of the meeting—to improve employee performance—clear to all.

• Use the meeting to help the employee identify the problem, develop solutions, and understand that sustained inappropriate behavior will lead to increasingly harsher consequences. Keep the focus of the discussion on the problem, not the employee.

• Conduct the discipline interviews privately and promptly.

Record the results of the session and include the expected changes that must occur—then let the employee review it to ensure they have a clear understanding that doing nothing is not an option.

You must tackle performance problems at once.

Remember that as a leader, your actions as well as your inactions will establish the standards for your team. Taking no action in the face of an obvious performance problem can be worse than taking the wrong action. Allowing poor performance to continue without direct involvement from you to correct the problem sets a new performance standard for that person as well as for other team members. Performance problems must be addressed immediately. It is hard work, but it is required when in a leadership position.

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Performance Counseling

Why Counsel an Employee?

Most performance problems can be resolved through effective communication between supervisors and their employees. A counseling session is an opportunity to clarify expectations and discuss performance problems.

What is the Difference Between Poor Performance and Misconduct? Misconduct is generally a failure to follow a workplace rule. Examples of misconduct include a safety violation, tardiness and absenteeism, insubordination, and falsification.

Poor performance, on the other hand, is simply the failure of an employee to do the job you have identified as acceptable. e acceptable level is usually, but not always, documented in written performance standards and defined in terms of quality, quantity, or timeliness. Although it is normal for poor performance and misconduct to be related, it is important to recognize the difference between the two.

What is Effective Counseling? If, despite taking preventive steps, you find that an employee's performance is still not meeting expectations, the best approach is to meet with the employee to discuss the problem.

Providing an Opportunity to Improve In most cases, counseling sessions will prove effective for resolving poor performance. However, if an employee is still

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working at an unacceptable level even after counseling, it is time to take a more formal approach toward performance improvement.

Depending on the nature of the job and the employee’s experience, this may be as simple as offering them assistance in performing their job. Examples of this include giving them a checklist to work with, pairing them with a more- experienced employee, providing training, or even overseeing their work and helping with constructive feedback. Not every employee will require this type of assistance. However, once assistance is offered, be sure to follow through with it in a timely manner.

Opportunity to Improve

e procedures for providing a formal opportunity to improve include:

1. Notice of a performance problem: Inform the employee in writing that there is a performance problem and let them know of the critical element(s) in which they are failing, what is needed to bring performance up to an acceptable level, what assistance will be provided, and the consequences of failing to improve within a specific time frame.

2. Formal Opportunity to Improve: Employee must bring performance up to an acceptable level in all of the failed areas. Duration of the opportunity period may vary. Be sure to document the employee's progress and to provide any appropriate assistance.

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3. Formal review of employee performance: Employee’s performance is evaluated throughout the opportunity period. en conduct a formal review aer the deadline for improvement is reached.

Deciding What Comes Next

Deciding what comes next depends on the employee’s performance at the conclusion of the opportunity period. If the employee has reached an acceptable level of performance, there is no need for any action except to keep providing feed- back and encouragement. If the employee still is performing unacceptably, you must determine the next steps. Ask yourself the following questions to help determine where you go from here.

What is my responsibility to the employee when there is a performance issue?

As the employee’s supervisor, it is your responsibility to keep an employee regularly informed about their performance, particularly when that assessment is negative. When perform- ance gets to the point where formal action must be taken, follow the guidelines provided in your employee handbook or any other policy or practice established for your organization. If there are none, or you still are not sure, contact your Human Resources Department for help.

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Should I wait for the annual performance appraisal to tell an employee that their performance is unacceptable?

No, you should not wait. In fact, good leaders provide their employees with performance feedback throughout the appraisal cycle, as we discussed in the previous step.

I never counseled an employee before. What kind of information do I need in order to prepare for a counseling meeting?

One of the most important documents you will need is a copy of the employee’s job description. is helps identify those areas where their performance does not align with job expectations. In addition, have a copy of any company policy or work practice that the employee is not in compliance with.

You also will need copies of any notes you may have taken regarding their performance up to that point, prior discus- sions with them concerning their performance, goals you may have set for them, follow-up meetings you had with them, and the outcomes of those meetings, just to name a few.

One of the most important things to remember in taking notes is to date them so they reflect when you met with an employee or when you noted both good and bad performance. When logging poor performance, be sure to note specific examples of what they were doing that failed to meet expectations. Doing so will make it easier for you to explain the performance issue(s) to the employee when you meet with them.

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Effective Counseling Tips

The following are tips to help you prepare for and conduct effective counseling sessions:

• Before counseling, make sure you can clearly define what would constitute acceptable performance.

• Make sure that you conduct the counseling session in a private place.

• Arrange adequate time for the meeting to ensure that both you and the employee have the necessary time for comments.

• Clearly state performance expectations and seek confirmation that the employee understands those expectations.

• Focus on the poor performance, not on the person or their personalities.

• Always maintain a constructive tone of voice along with a calm and professional demeanor.

• Seek cooperation, NOT confrontation.

• Remember that your goal is to improve the employee’s performance, not to win an argument with them.

• Try to end the session on a positive note by emphasizing that your goal is to improve the employee’s performance.

In closing, employees want to know where they stand in terms of performance, both good and bad. As a leader, it is your responsibility to provide regular and meaningful performance

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feedback to all of your employees. If employees are performing well, tell them so they know to continue doing so. On the other hand, they cannot fix it if they do not know it is broken.

If they are not performing according to expectations, tell them so and give them the opportunity to correct things prior to the year-end formal appraisal. Giving performance feed- back takes time, but if you truly care about the well-being of your employees, the return on investment will be more than worth the time you put into letting them know how they are doing.

Maximizing Employee Performance

Getting the most from your employees is at the heart of our definition of leadership. As a leader, you should not be content with the status quo. Instead, you should constantly seek to improve performance through motivation, inspiration, and leading by example.

e Ten Keys to Maximizing Employee Performance

1. Let people know what you expect. If people know what is expected of them, that is what they will do. If they do not know what is expected, they will do something else. Communicate clear and unambiguous performance expectations and hold people accountable for their performance.

2. Be a systems thinker. Remind people that what they do in one area could affect others in multiple areas. If people

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know how their actions affect others, they will try harder to perform well.

3. Keep people informed about current events. Do not assume they can read your mind. If there is something going on that could affect them, let them know. If people do not know, they invent and the human tendency is to assume the negative. A well-timed word on your part will prevent a lot of worry on theirs.

4. Let people own their jobs. Do you remember your first car? Do you remember how you felt about owning it? And do you remember how hard you worked to keep it clean and in good running order? e same holds true for people’s jobs. If people feel like they own their job, they will work harder to polish and preserve it.

5. Establish a culture of feedback. ings typically go wrong only 10 percent of the time, yet we spend 90 percent of our time belaboring those things that went wrong. On the other hand, we probably spend 10 percent of our time talking about the 90 percent of the time we did things well. is is a normal occurrence when providing feedback as well. Spending more time providing feedback about the positive outcomes makes it easier to talk to people about the negatives. Letting people know when they did well does not diminish your authority as a leader in any way. Feedback truly is the breakfast of champions and people who feel like champions act like champions.

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6. Share your power. When we are given power, there is an expectation that we will use it responsibly. People who use power responsibly do not manipulate or intimidate. Instead, they focus on what they can give to others rather than on what they can get. ey share their power, or empower others to help make decisions and provide influence. Like the common parable about casting your bread upon the waters, the return is a thousand fold. ose with whom the power is shared give it back in greater measure and the mutual ability to influence is enhanced. Simply put, power shared is power gained.

7. The coach, not the players, is usually the first to get fired when a sports team performs poorly. And it’s usually the fault of underachieving players, not of the general manager. When a coach fails to motivate employees to provide maximum effort, players will perform only good enough to keep their jobs. e coach then is held accountable for not providing a championship season. So it is in the business world.

8. Money is not always the answer. As with a prized athlete, if you take their pay away, they will not show up for the game. But offering them more does nothing to make them work or play harder either.

9. Treat your people like volunteers. Have you ever noticed how hard volunteers work, how dedicated most of them are, how much time they give to their volunteer organizations? is is usually because others recognize

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and appreciate their skills. Oen volunteers are given important jobs that carry large responsibility. Recogni- tion and opportunity are what drive volunteers. Treat the people who work with you like volunteers and the results will amaze you.

10. What happens while you are there does not matter. It is what happens when you are not there that counts. Build a sense of trust in your employees and they will do what is right all the time.

When an employee’s work output fails to meet performance standards, the leader must discover the reasons why. But what happens when the leader lacks the ability to successfully determine the reasons for such shortcomings?

Inexperienced supervisors probably have the most difficulty in correcting problems that involve underperforming staff members. It is never easy to do so. In fact, it is usually a challenge to manage problems that involve employees rather than lead them to a solution.

Each person has their own attitude, viewpoint, and perspective. As a new or inexperienced supervisor, you are oen dealing with friends or people you have recently worked alongside. at can add to the difficulties of managing employee problems since many employees may not yet recognize you as the boss or may think that you will approach the issue the same as if you were still working in your previous position.

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One of a supervisor’s most important responsibilities is to deal with employees. Managing equipment, products, materials, time, and money are critical. However, the majority of the work in most departments is performed by employees. Learning strategies that will help quickly identify potential problems can give the supervisor a jump-start when develop- ing problem-resolution strategies.

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Chapter 12

The Art of Leadership

Set your team up for success: one of the most frustrating situations for an employee is to be

assigned a task that they do not know how to do.

Teaching and Training

e art of leadership really boils down to learning and practicing people skills. Your ability to interact with your employees on a relational level largely will determine how effective you are in training, teaching, coaching, motivating, mentoring, and inspiring them toward success.

Demonstrate Enthusiasm: In many ways, you set the tone for your employees. If you are unmotivated, expect your employ- ees to be unmotivated as well. Likewise, if you demonstrate enthusiasm for your work, it will carry over to your employees.

Interface with your Employees: It is important that you interact with your employees on a regular basis. A prolonged pattern of not doing so creates the perception that you are a cold, uncaring autocrat rather than the caring, compassionate leader you want to be. Step out from behind that desk periodically and let your employees interact with you face to face.

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Celebrate Accomplishments: Take time out to celebrate accomplishments as a company. When you have asked your employees to go the extra mile to complete a major project, it is not unreasonable for them to expect something in return. is can be as simple as ordering a pizza or as extravagant as organizing an annual holiday party outside of the office. What you do is not as important as recognizing a job well done.

Offer Incentives: With incentives, cash is not always king. Sometimes the best incentives require a little creativity on your part. In addition to offering flextime for employees who demonstrate outstanding service and performance, you can do things like offer theater tickets or restaurant gi certificates to the employee of the month. Part of the fun is creating an atmosphere where your employees do not know what their reward will be until they have achieved their goal.

Treat your Employees with Kindness: Showing kindness and understanding will go a long way to motivate your employees to help you achieve your goals. While unplanned events such as sick kids or other personal crises can interfere with the workplace, no matter how many problems these occurrences cause for you, they have created more problems for your employees. As much as possible, try to give your employees the time they need to care for their families. You will end up with happier employees who are more likely to go the extra mile for you when you need it most.

Listen: Above all else, listen to what your employees have to say and let them know how much you value their input. e loyalty it inspires in your employees will make it well worth your while.

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Train and Teach

One of the most frustrating situations for an employee is to be assigned a task that they do not know how to do. Set your team up for success by ensuring that all are trained and ready to do their jobs.

Do you remember your first day on a job? Were you confident about this new experience or were you anxious and perhaps apprehensive? Most people starting a new job would admit to being nervous as well as being concerned about perform- ing their duties up to their employer's standards and being accepted by other employees. Supervisors often neglect to adequately give orientation and train new employees. ey assume the new employees understand what needs to be done or will catch on quickly.

Employee orientation and training programs are the most important things you will ever do for an employee. First impressions last a lifetime. But when you welcome an employee to your company by spending the time necessary to help them overcome their initial concerns and anxieties, it will make them feel a part of the team. That will increase worker pro- ductivity, decrease confusion, and increase satisfaction for both employer and employee.

e orientation of a new employee can involve several people, even though one person has overall responsibility. Orientation will change from business to business, but the basics that should be discussed with the new employee include the organization’s

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values and the business’s characteristics (layout of facilities, other employees, history, mission, goals, and role of employee).

This kind of information provides the big picture of the business to the new employee. Personnel policies, disciplinary actions, work schedules, safety rules, and use of equipment also need to be covered. New employees are always interested in their benefits. Cover items such as pay, pay days, vacation, sick leave, and other benefits. Give them a copy of your employee handbook containing these and other policies to ensure that they are clear about company expectations.

Discuss specific job responsibilities the new employee will be assigned along with how their job relates to other work performed in the business. Finally, be sure to introduce the new employee to other employees.

Answer all of the new employee’s immediate questions. It is important to develop open, two-way lines of communication between the employer and employee right from the begin- ning. Consider the time spent for orientation as an investment for both you and the employee. Clear, well-defined expectations will pay dividends in the future and reduce possible misunder- standings between employer and employee.

Training

Do you expect your new employees to already be trained when they show up for their first day on the job? Too oen supervisors hope for a “ready-to-hit-the-ground-running” employee. It is unrealistic to believe that all new employees

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have the needed abilities and skills to do the required tasks up to your standards.

The first thing you will need to do is to conduct a skills analysis on the new employee to determine what their knowl- edge, skills, and abilities are. is can be done by reviewing their job application or resume, discussing their employment history with them, following up with their references, or watching them work.

Once you determine training needs for the new employee and have a training plan in place, discuss the desired training outcomes with them. Include such factors as speed and accuracy, performance standards and levels deemed satis- factory for completing tasks. If available, give them a copy of the standard operating procedures for each task, which could contain such things as the chronological order for completing the tasks.

e ability to teach the employee a particular skill or task is critical if training goals are to be met. Most find a step-by-step process the most successful in training employees.

Typical Reasons for Employee Training and Development

Training and development can be initiated for a variety of reasons for an employee or group of employees:

• When a performance appraisal indicates performance improvement is needed.

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• To benchmark the status of improvement in a performance improvement effort.

• As part of an overall professional development or succession planning program to help prepare employees for planned changes or roles within the organization.

• To test the operation of a new performance management system.

• When employees have no prior experience operating newly acquired equipment.

• To train on a specific topic.

Typical Topics of Employee Training

Communications:e increasing diversity of today’s workforce brings a wide variety of languages and customs.

Computer skills: Computer skills are becoming a necessity for conducting administrative and office tasks.

Customer service: Increased competition in today’s global marketplace makes it critical that employees understand and meet the needs of customers.

Diversity:Diversity training usually includes explanations on people’s differing perspectives and views, and includes tech- niques on how to respect and value diversity.

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Ethics: Today’s society has increasing expectations about corporate social responsibility. Also, today’s diverse workforce brings a wide variety of values and morals to the workplace.

Human relations:e increased stresses of today’s workplace can cause misunderstandings and conflict. Training can teach people about how to overcome issues such as these and to get along in the workplace.

Quality initiatives: Initiatives such as Total Quality Manage- ment, Quality Circles, Benchmarking, etc., require basic training about quality concepts, guidelines and standards for quality.

Safety: Safety training is critical when working with heavy equipment, new equipment, hazardous chemicals, repetitive activities, etc. It also can be a useful tool for giving practical advice on avoiding assaults.

Sexual harassment: This training usually includes explicit explanations of the organization's policies about sexual harassment, including describing what constitutes inappro- priate behavior.

General Benefits from Employee Training and Development

The reasons for supervisors to conduct employee training include:

• Increased job satisfaction and morale among employees.

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• Increased employee motivation.

• Increased efficiencies in processes, resulting in financial gain.

• Increased capacity to adopt new technologies and methods.

• Increased innovation in strategies and products.

• Reduced employee turnover.

• Enhanced company image (through ethics training, for example).

• Risk management (through sexual harassment and diversity training).

Some Contemporary Principles of Adult Learning

e process of action learning is based on contemporary views of adult learning. Action learning asserts that adults learn best when:

• Working to address a current, real-world problem.

• ey are highly vested in solving the current problem.

• ey actually apply new materials and information.

• ey provide ongoing feedback centered on their experiences.

In addition, adults oen learn best from experience rather than from extensive note taking and memorization.

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To Learn, You Must Be Willing to Grow and to Experience

Learning oen involves new skills and new behaviors. Aer many years of classroom education, it is easy for us to take a course where all we must do is attend each session, take notes, and pass tests. We can complete a master’s degree in Business Administration (MBA) program, but unless we are willing to apply new knowledge, we most likely will end up with an office full of unreferenced textbooks and a head full of data, but little practical knowledge and wisdom. is is not learning. is is simply the art of remembering.

For the learning process to succeed, we must be willing to take risks. If the training or learning does not meet your expectations, let someone know about it as soon as you can. Do not wait until the course is over and nothing can be done about it.

Growth Involves the Entire Learner

If our learning is to be more than just a collection of new information, we must become active participants in the learning experience. Unfortunately, too many development program providers still operate from the assumption that the learner’s personal development does not matter as much as their pro- fessional development. ey separate that out of the training they provide. So we end up getting a great deal of information about specific items such as finance and sales, for example, but very little help with personal development necessities such as stress and time management. en, aer the completion of learning, we enter the hectic world of management, struggle to maintain order and are plagued with self-doubt.

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Feedback is useful in more ways than just telling someone what they do not know or what

they are doing wrong.

True learning involves looking at every aspect of our lives, not just what is in our heads. Teaching people about things like stress management and emotional Intelligence are very important to your overall training and development plans, so make sure you look for programs that incorporate both hard and so skills training.

Growth Requires Seeking Ongoing Feedback

Many of us do not know what we need to learn—we do not know what we do not know. erefore, feedback from others is critical to understanding ourselves and our jobs. Feedback is useful in more ways than just telling someone what they do not know or what they are doing wrong. Feedback also deepens and enriches what we do know and those things we are doing right.

Research indicates that adults learn new information and methods best when they a) actually apply the knowledge and methods, and b) exchange feedback around those experiences. However, we are oen reluctant to seek advice and feedback from others, particularly fellow workers. We are sometimes reluctant to share feedback with others as well.

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e courage to overcome our reluctance and fear is oen the first step toward achieving true growth in our lives and jobs.

Include Learners in Training and Development Planning

Learners are oen the best experts at realizing their own needs for self-development. Therefore, learners should be involved in developing their training and development plan as much as possible. People take more ownership when they feel like they are a part of the process or planning. In addition, professional growth rarely encompasses merely learning new skills and abilities. Self-development, or people skills, are just as important, and sometimes more important than learning how to do a new task.

If Available, Have a Human Resources Representative Play a Major Role

A trained human resources professional can be a major help in employee development. The representative usually has a good understanding of the dynamics of training and develop- ment. They also have a strong working knowledge of the relevant policies and procedures related to training and development. In addition, the representative can be an impartial confidant for the learner.

Provide Ongoing Feedback and Support

Some learners may not feel comfortable asking for help. Even if things seem to be going fine, supervisors still need to check in with the learner regularly to see if there are questions or

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concerns, as well as provide useful feedback. Provide ongoing affirmation and support.

Assessing Employee Learning and Maximizing Feedback

Consider getting feedback from the learner’s peers and subordinates about the learner’s progress. A 360-degree performance review is a powerful practice when carried out with clarity and discretion, and when used correctly. It might be wise to bring in a professional the first time you use this tool to ensure that both you and the employees understand its intent and usefulness.

Coaching and Mentoring

As leaders, we tend to get wrapped up in the day-to-day operations of our organization and do not take time to plan for our own career moves, which could include retirement. We do not take the time to develop someone to replace us.

You need to take a hard look at whether there is someone on your team who could readily assume your leadership role if you are gone on vacation, move to another department, get promoted, or retire. If not, then you should seriously consider mentoring and coaching your employee(s) to get them ready for this potential situation.

Poor or misinformed leaders think that if they train someone to do their jobs, they will become vulnerable to being fired. at is typically not the case. Instead, by building subordinate(s) up so that they can perform in your absence, a win-win situation

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is created for all—for you, your key employees, and the organization.

is is the hallmark of effective leadership—doing what needs to be done even though you are not there to supervise them. Coaching and mentoring is more than just selecting your replacement. It involves bringing out the best in your team members in order to improve performance and create a learn- ing atmosphere within your team.

e Supervisor as a Coach

A good supervisor places a high priority on coaching employ- ees. Good coaching involves working with employees to estab- lish suitable goals, action plans and time lines. e supervisor delegates, and also provides ongoing guidance and support to the employees as they complete their action plans.

Rarely can job goals be established without considering other aspects of an employee’s life. Take time to discuss such things as training, career goals, personal strengths and weaknesses, and so forth. If their career goals include areas for which they have no skills or they aspire to a position for which you know they never will be a viable candidate, be honest with them and let them know that. is can be a hard discussion to have with them, but they will thank you for it later.

e Supervisor as a Mentor

Usually the supervisor understands the organization and the employee’s profession better than the employee does. Conse- quently, the supervisor is in a unique position to give ongoing

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advice to the employee about their job and career. e employee can look to the supervisor as a great resource for direction and guidance. An effective mentor-mentee relationship requires the supervisor to accept the responsibility of mentor- ship and then follow through on it. A good supervisor can be a priceless addition to the career of an employee.

What Mentoring Means

Mentoring encompasses the technical, professional, and personal development of our only source of sustainable corporate advantage—people. A mentor willingly devotes their time, talent, and energy to helping people develop and fulfill their career potential.

e word mentor has roots in e Odyssey of ancient Greek mythology. When Odysseus le Ithaca to fight in the Trojan War, he entrusted Mentor with the care and development of his son Telemachus. Aer the war, Odysseus wandered for ten years, trying to return home. In his search for his father, Telemachus was accompanied by Athena, who assumed the form of Mentor.

Mentor’s wise counsel, tutelage, and guardianship resonate through today’s workplace mentoring practices. Mentoring has become synonymous with the guidance and support offered by a trusted, more experienced adviser—someone who takes an active, influential, yet usually informal interest in guiding a protégé’s progress within the organization’s political culture.

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ink back to your first day at work. Did you wake up that morning wanting to be a poor performer? Was it your ambition to be just average? It is more likely you were motivated to excel, but were not completely sure how to do that. By trial and error, you made sense of the ambiguity and unwritten rules of the real world. Maybe you even had a supervisor with the attitude that, “I had to learn the hard way. So can everyone else.” Hopefully that was not the case and instead you had leaders or more-experienced peers who took the time to share their expertise and show you the ropes.

This type of organization WILL NOT attract people, investors, and customers in today’s business climate.

It is clear that we no longer can afford the sink-or-swim approach. is ruins relationships, imperils dedication, reduces confidence, and wastes resources. is type of organization WILL NOT attract people, investors, and customers in today’s business climate. Instead, becoming an organization that provides for a structured, long-term approach to developing and supporting high-potential achievers opens many doors and attract high performers, committed investors and customers. Mentors support the development of a protégé’s mastery of the following dimensions.

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Manage Knowledge

Mentors can play a pivotal role in ensuring the success of an organization’s strategic learning and development initiatives. By developing mentoring skills, leaders gain credibility by helping people use what they have learned during formal learning activities to develop their long-term career potential. With this support and guidance, people will develop the confidence and commitment they need to achieve individual goals and support organizational goals and strategies. Remem- ber, setbacks and failures can be equally valuable experiences if we learn from them, help others learn from them, and use this knowledge to improve our performance.

Ease Transition to New Responsibilities

Mentors help people with new roles or additional assignments to help them understand the organization’s expectations and to learn the unwritten tricks of the trade for those specific roles or assignments. Mentors also can help people to minimize failure and setbacks by sharing their own experiences and those of others who have faced similar challenges. By taking an active interest in developing their mentees, mentors can help people avoid common pitfalls and develop the values, commitment, and skills they need to succeed.

Networking and Best-Practice Communities

Mentors exchange ideas, stimulate dialogue, and enhance skills by creating a support network of other experienced practitioners and managers. ey share with others what has or has not worked for them.

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Mentors believe in a level playing field for everyone. They recognize that superior performance merits special recognition and reward. ey help people to realize their career aspirations and personal potential by clarifying expectations and presenting realistic, credible career-development options. ey help people assume responsibility for their own development and commit themselves to giving their best performance.

Organized mentoring programs have enhanced individual performance through greater career satisfaction and retention, better decision making, and higher levels of personal commit- ment. Although issues related to employment conditions should be handled through established procedures, culture and practices can and do affect performance. Effective and timely mentoring can help high- potential performers understand what they must do to improve, and the consequences of not doing so. is should be done before performance issues adversely impact their career prospects and before a formal intervention becomes necessary.

Retain and Develop Talent

Mentoring facilitates continuity in management succession and retention of skilled talent by identifying achievers with leadership potential and technical skills. Organized and leadership-focused approaches to mentoring develop the visibility, skills, and all-around capabilities of these high- potential people. ey also provide them the tools they need to assume additional responsibility and to have rewarding careers in the organization.

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Guide

Although mentors may not have all the answers, they can share valuable insights gained through their own experiences to give vision, purpose, direction, focus, and meaning to a protégé’s career development. Mentors also may ask thought-provoking questions and give honest feedback, which will help challenge preconceived assumptions and complacency by the mentee. This helps to stimulate fresh insights and perspectives about organizational, political, or social realities, thereby sharpening a protégé’s critical- thinking, problem-solving, and decision-making skills.

Guardian

By helping them to learn how to discern the risks inherent in any course of action, mentors protect protégés from avoidable corporate and career mistakes. is guidance helps them avoid the rocks and shoals upon which their career advance- ment may be founded. By suggesting alternatives and helping protégés plan their development more effectively, mentors protect the interests of the protégé and the organization.

Advocate

Mentors represent mentees’ interests, introduce them to key people, identify opportunities for them to showcase their talents and capabilities, and share responsibility as well as credit for joint achievements.

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Confidant

Mentors serve as a sounding board for the protégé to confiden- tially test new ideas, share insights, discuss workplace issues or vent frustrations. ey listen with genuine interest, concern, and empathy, exploring and reflecting on issues before offering their own judgements. Most importantly, they build and create a level of trust with the protégé by ensuring confidentiality throughout the mentoring relationship.

Protégé Roles And Responsibilities

Protégés bring their own qualities, views, and talents to mentoring. As the relationship evolves, their perspectives, commitment and passion can make a real difference.

e 16 Laws of Mentoring

1. e Law of Positive Environment: Create a positive environment where potential and motivation are released and options discussed.

2. e Law of Developing Character: Nurture a positive character by helping to develop not just talent, but also a wealth of mental and ethical traits.

3. e Law of Shared Mistakes: Share your failures as well as your successes.

4. e Law of Planned Objectives: Prepare specific goals for your relationship.

5. e Law of Independence: Promote autonomy; make the learner independent of you, not dependent on you.

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6. e Law of Limited Responsibility: Be responsible to them, not for them.

7. e Law of Inspection: Monitor, review, critique, and discuss potential actions. Do not just expect perform- ance without inspection.

8. e Law of Tough Love: e participants acknowledge the need to encourage independence in the learner.

9. e Law of Small Successes: Use a steppingstone process to build on accomplishments and achieve great success.

10. e Law of Direction: It is important to teach by providing options as well as direction.

11. e Laws of Risk: A mentor should be aware that a learner’s failure may reflect back upon him/her. A learner should realize that a mentor’s advice will not always work.

12. e Law of Mutual Protection: Commit to covering each other’s backs. Maintain privacy. Protect integrity, character, and the pearls of wisdom you have shared with one another.

13. e Law of Communication: e mentor and the learner must balance listening and delivering information.

14. e Law of Extended Commitment: e mentoring relationship extends beyond the typical 8-to-5 business day and/or traditional workplace role or position.

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15. e Law of Life Transition: As a mentor, when you help a learner enter the next stage of their life or career, you will enter the next stage of yours as well.

16. e Law of Fun: Make mentoring a wonderful experience. Laugh, smile, and enjoy the process.

Motivating and Inspiring

ink back to the definition of leadership and you see the words “motivate” and “inspire.” How do you do this? What should you do (and not do) with your employees to motivate them?

In this section, we will discuss techniques to motive and inspire employee performance. Much has been written about this subject and by no means is this section all-inclusive. Rather, think of this section as a starting point from which to refine your motivational and inspirational competencies.

We all know people who have inspired us. It might have been a family member, or a historical or religious figure. People who started a small business and built it into a multimillion- dollar empire inspire many of us who own or would like to own our own company. For kids, it might be an imaginary hero from a book or movie. Of course, most of us in America were inspired by the actions of the 9/11 heroes. In thinking along these lines, how can we, as managers, learn to inspire others?

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Start with the examples of those people who inspired you and what you learned from them. Ask yourself how and why they inspired you. Once you have reflected on your own heroes, you can use that to motivate and inspire your team members to become the best they can be. In conclusion, inspire your employees to become the best they can be by practicing the following examples of leadership best practices.

Be A Good Example

“Do as I say, not as I do” is not good advice for managers. Employees always will watch what you do more than they listen to what you say. ey will not only focus on what you do at work, but when not there as well. Do not be hypocritical. Be someone worth following.

Appreciate Your Employees

Everyone likes to be appreciated for the work they do. Employees like to feel as if they are a valued part of the company, which also will help them do their best. Offer public praise and recognize victories oen, and make it authentic.

Share Your Failures

By you being willing to share your failures as well as your successes, others will relate to you much easier and more deeply. ey will understand that they are not the only people with challenges, that success does not come overnight, and it is not without problems.

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Watch What You Say

Watch what you say and how you say it. While we may not intend to come across in a certain way, it is easy to become condescending when relating how you have overcome prob- lems or how you have succeeded (and they did not). is also includes written communication and especially email.

Challenge Your Employees

If you ever had a teacher or a mentor who challenged you, you will understand what this means. ey asked you to go the extra mile and to do your best. It might have been difficult and you probably did not think you could do it, but more oen than not, you made it and were grateful for the push.

Motivate em By Caring, Not Scaring

Fear never should be used as a motivation strategy. It may get you what you want now, but it will come back to haunt you in the future in the form of employee anger, resentment, and lack of enthusiasm and commitment. When employees feel that managers care about them and that they are perceived as respected and valuable members of the organization, they are more cooperative, enthusiastic, and committed to succeed, both in the present and in the future.

Growth and Blossoming of Employee Motivation in the Right Environment

The job of the manager is to create a work environment that gives employees the opportunity to attain their goals and

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experience what they value most in their professional lives. In this environment, communication is open and honest, coaching for success is ongoing, training for performance improvement is continuous, and creative problem-solving is a way of life. Managers also need to provide sincere expressions of recognition, appreciation, and acknowledgement to nourish their employees’ feelings of self-worth.

If you want motivated employees, you need to be motivated yourself.

Walk Your Talk

Modeling the behavior you want from your employees is the most effective way to change their and everyone else’s behavior. If you want your employees to arrive on time, you should be in early. If you want motivated employees, you need to be motivated yourself. Regardless of what it is that you want and expect from your employees, remember, most people never will become motivated or strive to succeed when presented with tasks that you, as a manager, are not committed to on a personal and professional level.

Make Work Fun!

e research is clear. Laughter is not only good for the soul, but for the mind and body as well. Having fun is a basic human need, and when it is met in the workplace, productivity goes up. Appoint a “fun” committee and come up with ways to bring enjoyment into your department.

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Bringing fun into the workplace lowers stress levels and provides opportunities for employees to build rapport with each other, which is the foundation for successful team building.

e Law of Attraction

e law of attraction states that whatever we focus on, we bring it to ourselves. If you focus on the lack of motivation in your employees, you will find more and more examples of it. When you seek to learn more about motivation and create an atmosphere that fosters it, you will find more motivated employees in the workplace.

Ongoing Commitment

Mentoring and caring about your employees is an ongoing process because people are continually growing and changing. As they achieve something they want or value, they then seek to achieve more of the same, to move to that next level. If motivation is not a high priority, you will see the fires in your employees slowly fade and die out.

Strategic Leadership

“e best executive is the one who has the sense enough to pick good men to do what he wants done and self-restraint enough to keep from meddling with them while they do it.” eodore Roosevelt, 26th president of the United States.

Executive leaders guide the achievement of their organi- zational vision by acquiring and allocating resources, directing policy, building consensus, influencing organizational culture,

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and shaping complex and usually ambiguous internal and external environments. Executive leaders lead by example to build effective organizations, grow the next generation of leaders, energize subordinates, seek opportunities to advance organizational goals, and balance personal and professional demands.

Strategic Leadership Challenges

Maintain Your Perspective: Consider the entire organization, not just a particular functional area. Be careful not to become so engaged in the details that you lose your objectivity.

Anticipate and Shape the Future: Know and understand the time frame in which you operate. Engage external stakeholders to shape the future environment.

Stay In Your Lane: Let supervisors and managers run the organization. Your job is to synchronize processes and systems across the organization.

Clear Communications with Key Messages: e vision is your message. Clearly and consistently articulate a few powerful messages that communicate the vision.

Consider Second- and ird-Order Effects of Decisions: Effects have causes. Effects can, and usually do, become causes of other effect(s) and because of this, there can be a large number of cause-and-effect chains created based on a single causal event.

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Final Thoughts

Go out and slay some dragons.

Here ere Be Dragons …

In ancient times, mapmakers did not have a clear and certain view of the world. Instead, they knew only about what the explorers told them was out there. e notes and charts the explorers maintained were used to draw the maps that would be employed by future explorers. On the other side of the known world, these cartographers often would draw sea monsters and dragons to symbolize the unknowns: here there be dragons.

Leadership is about slaying these dragons and turning the unknown into the known. Leaders are people who thrive on tackling change, dealing with uncertainty and complex problems, and truly making the significant differences needed in order to propel others forward into the land of the unknowns: here there be dragons.

It oen has been said that management is concerned with doing things right, whereas leadership is concerned with doing the right things. If that is true, then management is focused on making the map correct whereas leadership is concerned with discovering what else is out there that other explorers missed: here there be dragons.

So, go forth and lead boldly! Never give up, never quit. Never give in to the temptations and revert to the path of least resistance. Instead, go out and slay some dragons. Aer all, that is what leadership is all about: here there be dead dragons.

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References and Selected Bibliography

Abrashoff, D. M. (2002) It’s Your Ship. New York: Warner Books, Inc.

Barber, B. E. (2004). No Excuse Leadership: Lessons from the U.S. Army’s Elite Rangers. Hoboken, New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Canfield, J., M. V. Hansens, M. Rogerson, M. Rutte, and T. Clause Carrison, D., and R. Walsh T. (1996). Chicken Soup for the Soul at Work. Deerfield Beach, FL: Health Communications, Inc.

D. Carrison, and R. Walsh, (1999). Semper Fi: Business Leadership the Marine Corps Way. New York, NY: American Management Association.

Center for Army Leadership (2004). e U.S. Army Leadership Field Manual: Battle-Tested Wisdom for Leadership in Any Organization. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Cohen, W. A. (2001). e Stuff of Heroes: e Eight Universal Laws of Leadership. Athens, GA: Longstreet Press.

Collins, J. (2001) Good to Great: Why some Companies Make the Leap and Others Don’t. New York. HarperCollins Publishers, Inc.

Collins, J. and M. T. Hansen (2011). Great by Choice. HarperCollins Publishing, Inc.

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Connelly, O. (2002). On War and Leadership: e Words of Combat Commanders from Frederick the Great to Norman Schwarzkopf. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

Covey, S. R. (2004). e 8th Habit: From Effectiveness to Greatness. New York, NY: Simon & Schuster, Inc.

Drucker, P. (1966). e Effective Executive. New York: Harper & Row.

Harvard Business Essentials. (2004). Creating Teams with an Edge: e Complete Skill Set to Build Powerful and Influential Teams. Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Publishing Corporation.

Huszczo, G. (2004). Tools for Team Leadership: Delivering the X Factor in Team Excellence. Palo Alto, CA: Davies-Black Publishing.

Kotter, J. P. (1996). Leading Change. Boston MA: Harvard Business School Press.

Lakein, A. (1974). How to Get Control of Your Time and Your Life. New York: Signet, 1974.

Maxwell, J. C. (2004). Developing the Leaders Within You: Workbook. Nashville, TN: omas Nelson, Inc.

Maxwell, J. C. (2005). The 360° Leader: Developing Your Influence from Anywhere. Nashville TN: omas Nelson, Inc.

Maxwell, J. C. (2001). e 17 Indisputable Laws of Teamwork: Embrace em and Empower Your Team. Nashville, TN: omas Nelson, Inc.

Maxwell, J. C. (2000). e 21 Most Powerful Minutes in a Leader’s Day: Revitalize Your Spirit and Empower Your Leadership. Nashville, TN: omas Nelson, Inc.

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McConnell, T. (1974). Group Leadership for Self-Realization. London, England: Mason and Lipscomb Publishers.

McDeilly, M. (2001) Sun Tzu and e Art of Modern Warfare: New York, NY: Oxford University Press, Inc.

McGee-Cooper, A. (1983). Time Management for Unmanageable People. Dallas, TX: Ann McGee-Cooper and Associates.

Nanus, B. (1992). Visionary Leadership. New York, NY: Maxwell Macmillan International Publishing.

Oedekoven, O. O., D. K. Robbins, J. Lavrenz, H. A. Dillon, Jr., & R. Warne. (2015, Revised 2017). Leadership Foundations: A Conversation Regarding the Character, Skills, and Actions for Leaders. Gillette, Wyoming: Peregrine Leadership Institute.

Santamaria, J. A., V. Martino, and E. K. Clemens (2004). e Marine Corps Way: Using Maneuver Warfare to Lead A Winning Organization. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Publishing.

Snair, S. (2004). West Point Leadership Lessons: Duty, Honor and Other Management Principles. Naperville, IL: Sourcebooks, Inc.

Tichy, N. M. (2002). e Cycle of Leadership: How Great Leaders Teach eir Companies to Win. New York, NY: HarperCollins Publishers, Inc.

Welch, J., and S. Welch, (2005) WINNING. New York, NY: HarperCollins Publishers, Inc.

REFERENCES AND SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY | 243

Meet the Authors

Olin O. Oedekoven, PhD

Dr. Olin Oedekoven has an extensive background in leadership, organizational development, higher education, strategic planning, and institutional evaluation. His undergraduate degree is in Wildlife and Fisheries Management (South Dakota State University), and his first master’s degree is in Wildlife Ecology (University of Wyoming). Olin then worked in state government as a natural resource specialist for 20 years.

Olin continued his formal education with Northcentral Univer- sity, earning an MBA and a PhD in Business Administration with concentrations in Management and Public Administration. He later earned a post-doctoral certification in Human Resource Management. Dr. Oedekoven taught doctoral level students for 10 years, including chairing approximately 40 PhD committees.

Concurrently, Dr. Oedekoven served for nearly 33 years in the U.S. Army Reserves and U.S. Army National Guard. He retired in 2011 as the deputy adjutant general of the Wyoming National Guard, leading an organization that included nearly 3,500 members (civilian and uniformed employees). Brig. Gen. Oedekoven has a master’s degree in Strategic Planning from the U.S. Army War College, and served on several U.S. government councils and committees during his tenure as a general officer.

Dr. Oedekoven founded the Peregrine Leadership Institute in 2003 and Peregrine Academic Services in 2009. e Leadership Institute provides leadership development training, organiza- tional assessment, strategic planning assistance, and executive leadership seminars. Highlights associated with the leadership development services include management training throughout the U.S. with government and private sector organizations, ongoing leadership training in Canada, and leadership devel- opment work in China, Tunisia, Mongolia, Vietnam, India, Ghana, and South Africa.

Peregrine Academic Services provides online assessment and educational services to institutions of higher education throughout the world. Peregrine has also consulted with both governmental and academic institutions and organiza- tions concerning higher education needs, compliance, academic accreditation, assurance of learning, quality, and reform.

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Deborah K. Robbins, SPHR, MPA

Deborah Robbins has an extensive background in human resources, leadership development, HR systems, and strategic planning. Her undergraduate degree is in Personnel Manage- ment and Industrial Relations and she holds a master’s degree in Public Administration. Throughout her years of public service in local government, her focus was on leadership development, general human resource practices, and project management.

Robbins also has extensive experience in the private sector with general human resources, recruiting, and continuous improve- ment processes. She is an adjunct faculty member for the University of Mary in Bismarck, ND, teaching undergraduate and graduate level Human Resources and Diversity courses. Ms. Robbins holds the certification of Senior Professional in Human Resources from the Society of Human Resources in the U.S.

In 2010, Robbins joined Peregrine Leadership Institute, focusing on instructional design, human resource consulting, executive leadership development, and coaching new supervisors. She resides in Gillette, Wyoming.

MEET THE AUTHORS | 247

John E. Lavrenz, MBA

John had 30-plus years of experience at all organizational levels. He had a comprehensive background in the areas of training and development and extensive experience in the areas of leadership, organizational development, affirmative action, succession planning, HR management, labor relations, and project management.

John had an undergraduate degree in Business Management with a concentration in Organizational Psychology and an MBA with a concentration in Project Management. He served on numerous boards and was instrumental in helping with pro- gram development for several local colleges, where he spent many years working with staff members as well as the exec- utive leadership to build technical education programs.

John served as vice president of the advisory board for a local college where his duties entailed working with city, county, and state leadership and government officials to help build support and funding for the Northwest Wyoming Community College District. He also sat on an advisory board for a local high school

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and was very passionate about his work there, which included student engagement—how to keep students in school.

John retired from his position as director of training from a large mining organization in March 2012, aer spending 34 years there. While there, he helped develop and conduct training for all levels within the organization. is included working closely with various global training providers to develop, and then conduct, training for all 14,000 employees in the organization.

In 2010, John entered into an agreement with a private firm and co-authored a succession-planning program that is being taught throughout the world. He was also jointly responsible for the recruitment and hiring process for the company’s Wyoming mining operations and worked closely with the federal government to set up and manage apprenticeship programs throughout the organization. John oen was called upon to help with conflict resolution both internally and externally.

John joined Peregrine Leadership Institute and Peregrine Academic Services as executive director shortly aer his retire- ment from the mining industry. John oversaw the daily business functions of Peregrine Leadership Institute and conducted executive leadership programs to various clients until his passing in early 2015.

MEET THE AUTHORS | 249

Peregrine Leadership Institute (PLI) was formed in 2004 as a Limited Liability Company registered in Wyoming, U.S.A. and subsequently as an S-Corp in 2006. The Institute employs experienced leadership consultants who provide consulting services, training workshops, and leadership seminars. Institute’s clients include both private and public sector organizations. Our focus is on values-based leadership, workplace application, and quality. To date (August 2016), the Institute has provided leadership and management development services for over 185 client organizations located throughout the U.S. and in several countries (U.S., Canada, China, Tunisia, Greece, Ghana, Mongolia, and Vietnam). Client organizations include publicly-owned companies, small business, non-profit organizations, and government agencies (federal, state, and local).

e Peregrine Leadership Institute includes professionals with practical, real-world experience. Leadership facilitators have the right combination of professional training, practical experience, and the values-based competency needed to facilitate impactful workshops and seminars and conduct human resource management consulting.

Leadership seminars and team development workshops focus on application and topical areas include strategic planning, executive leadership, coaching and mentoring, character

leadership, workplace compliance, performance management, team development, governance, overcoming conflict, and leading change. e online 360˚ Leadership Assessment service helps participants assess their leadership strengths and oppor- tunities for further development. Our Executive Leadership Program is based on the Baldrige Excellence Framework, designed to develop senior leaders who are able to lead change, grow organizational capacity, evaluate performance, and respond effectively to the uncertain strategic environment.

Peregrine’s Online Leadership Courses for business leadership includes courses focused business writing fundamentals, leadership communications, leadership essentials, leading teams, dealing with workplace conflict, leading change, and leading the leaders. Each course is organized into eight modules with instructional content and post-course assessment. e courses are oen used to supplement an academic specialization in leadership.

For more information, please contact us at:

www.PeregrineLeadership.com 307 685-1555

[email protected]

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A absenteeism, 199–200, 203 action learning, 220 action plans, 140, 225 active listening, 6, 113–14 adrenaline, 132, 142, 146 adult learning, 220 Aer Action Review (AAR), 126 agreement, 11, 65, 70, 160, 162 anger, 30, 44, 63 application forms, 89, 94–95 approach, team-building, 37 assignments, 22–23, 54, 228 assurance, conduct quality, 102 attitudes positive, 19–20, 30, 148 world-class, 81–82 authority, 37, 125, 156, 174–76, 198, 209 delegate, 13 grant, 176

B barriers, 47, 181, 187 to effective change, 6, 187 to effective communication, 112 basis monthly, 99–100 regular, 179, 181, 191, 213 behaviors good, 21–23 past, 79, 106 poor, 21–23 believing, 17–18 board, 51–52, 187, 231 boss, 35–36, 116, 144, 156, 211 business, 94, 105, 152, 155, 158–59, 162–63, 179, 200, 215–16, 233

characteristics, 216 climate, 227 ethics, 149, 151–52, 156 team, 56 vision, 104

C capabilities, 20, 229–30 employee, 199 care, 9, 40, 66, 88, 116–17, 137, 152, 174, 195–96, 208, 214, 224–26, 229, 233 career-development goals, 144 plans, 143, 229 change agents, 192 champions, 190 coalition, 179 conditions, 15 cultural, 192 efforts, 180–82 initiatives, 179, 186 leadership, 179 legitimize, 180, 189 lifestyle, 140 management plan, 184 new, 186 order, 130 organizational, 141 people resist, 182, 193 period of, 180–81 perpetual, 180 planned, 218 process, 179, 181, 183, 190 wild, 184 character, 25, 27, 47, 231–32 choices, 119, 149, 183 bad, 150

Index

civil rights organizations, 93 coach, 163, 172, 210, 225 counsel, 12 collaboration, 67, 103, 125–26 commitments, personal, 229 communicating non-defensively, 120, 122 communication(s), 6, 13, 43, 47, 50, 104, 111–12, 114, 116, 119, 129, 216, 218, 232, 236 business, 149 defensive, 120–21 effective, 111–12, 203 goals, 111 good, 53, 85 problems, 113 competencies, 46, 103, 107 competitiveness, 67 compliance, 6, 100, 156, 206 compromise, 67, 74, 125, 134, 158 conduct code of, 24, 149 criminal record checks, 94 conflict(s) changes cause, 61 constructive, 69 destructive, 69 interpersonal, 68, 120 managed, 67 team, resolving, 67 workplace, 111 conscience, 162 consciousness, stream of, 145 consensus, 42, 54, 70, 72, 74 team, 98 consequences of poor delegating, 177 constraints, 128, 171 time, 125, 166 contributions of others, 14, 88, 117, 181, 185 convictions, 93–94

costs, seek to reduce, 99–100, 128, 174, 199–201 counseling, 203, 207 courage, 13, 15, 28, 38, 223 co-workers, concern with, 61, 65, 106, 151–52, 157 credibility, leaders gain, 228 credit, giving, 15 criminal records, 92, 94 culture organizational, 237 organization’s, 186

D data modeling, cost, 127 net investment cost, 126 ROI, 126–27 decisions bad, 71, 128 employment, 93 final, 36, 57, 76 good, 15, 28 strategic, 77–78 timely, 15, 28 decisiveness, 28 deficiency, 101, 199, 201 degrees, master’s, 221 delegate, 56, 170–72, 174 tasks, 43 delegating, 173–74 jobs, 170–71, 173 leadership styles, 37 delegation, 6, 165, 167, 169–75, 177 deliverables, 42–43, 191 major, 123 development, 48, 102–3, 176, 217, 219, 223, 226–27, 229–30 employee, 223 people, principles, 25, 47 personal, 221, 226

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plans, 221–23 professional, 218, 221 team, 43 diary approach, 140 directed requirements/tasks, 129 directing leadership style, 35 direction, 22, 48, 226, 230, 232 organization’s, 27 disagreements, 66, 72, 74–75 discipline, positive, 195–96 discretionary areas of business, 158 distancing, 60 diversity, value, 15, 103, 218

E EEOC (Equal Employment Opportunity Commission), 93–94 efforts collective, of leadership, 11–12 leader’s, 40 team’s, 166 work, 123, 130 electronic applications, 86 emotional exchange, 113 emotions, 14, 29, 43, 63, 70–71, 112, 114–15, 182, 196 employee(s) anger, 235 coaching, 225 competent, 17 complaints, 76 criticizing, 21 defensiveness, 196 dismissal of, 175 experience and knowledge, use, 184 handbook, 76, 155, 205, 216 hiring, 94 involvement, 188 learning and maximizing feedback, 224

more-experienced, 204 motivated, 236–37 motivation, increased, 220 orientation, 215 performance, 202, 205 inspire, 233 link to goals, 117 progress, 204 relations/safety, 129 review, 202 safety, 159 senior, 34 training and development, reasons for, 217 turnover, reducing, 220 ethical choices, 6, 149–50 ethics, 151, 155, 157, 159, 161, 219–20 exchange ideas, 98 executive leaders, 237–38 exercise and proper diet, 30, 45, 147–48 expectations high and low, 21–23 organization’s, 228 performance, 152 extra mile, asking for, 214, 235

F failures, 14, 39, 68, 128, 144, 175, 184, 196, 201, 203, 228, 231, 234 feedback critical, 51, 53 exchange, 222 giving, 6, 49, 53, 115-6, 208 negative, 92, 116 people crave, 49 performance, giving, 208 providing, 116, 205, 209 receiving, 6, 115, 117 routine, 53 sessions, 52, 188

INDEX | 255

G goals, 41–42, 44, 46, 48–49, 51–52, 55–57, 59, 65–69, 72, 74, 103–5, 146, 168–70, 206–7, 214 career, 225 common, 42, 68 departmental, 11 organizational, 14, 98, 117, 199, 228, 238 sales, long-range, 102 training, 217 grammar and good spelling, importance of, 86–87 group/organization, 177–78 growth, 38, 195, 221–22, 235 guidance, 22, 57, 70, 154, 226, 228, 230

H helping employees set goals, 21 hiring mistakes, 79, 81 process, 77–78, 86, 91, 94 hiring decisions, 92 bad, 81 human resources, 96, 100, 108

I implementation, 188, 199 incentives, 214 increased workload, 184 inexperienced teams, leading, 36 information, new, adapting to, 15, 221–22 inspection, the law of, 232 inspire, 9, 15, 103, 111, 195, 214, 233–34 individuals, 38 multimillion-dollar empire, 233 inspiring, 7, 233

interview(s), 83, 91–92, 94–97, 142 discipline, 202 pre-discipline, 201 questions, 92, 107–8 schedule, 89 web-based, preliminary, 96 investment, 126, 168, 173, 216 investors, 227 invoices, 100–101

J job(s) candidates, 80 complete, 171 important, 168–69, 210 large, 171 minor, 167 partially completed, 172 people’s, 209 requirements, 86, 88, 159 routine, 167 judgment, 31, 65

L Laws of Mentoring, 231-32 laws, federal, 92, 94 leaders autocratic, 35 compassionate, caring, 213 competent, 33 democratic, 35 effective, 34, 40, 180 good, 206 learning, 13 misinformed, 224 strategic, 37 leadership behaviors, 188 competencies, 103 effective, 10, 225 environment, 49

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focused approaches, 229 key, 177 position, when in, 202 responsibility, ultimate, 151 roles, 41, 224 skills, 33, 131 styles, 33–35, 37, 39, 41, 43, 45, 47, 49, 51, 53, 55, 57 delegating, 37 transactional, 38–40 transformational, 38 theory, 33 transformational, 38 transition, 165 values, 13 leaders influence, 11 intent, 40 strength, 37 team, 32 leading change, 6, 179, 181, 183, 185, 187, 189, 191 teams, 41 learners, 221, 223, 231–33 learning experience, 37, 221 legal considerations, 95–96 long-term stress, 131, 148 loyalty, 13, 29, 31, 214

M management, 11–12, 39, 45, 100–102, 148, 221, 239 managing, employee problems, 211 MBA, 221 members interview team, 42 selecting team, 84–85 senior team, 34 mental stamina, 30 mentoring, 7, 12, 130, 171, 213,

224–26, 229, 231–33, 237 mentees, 228, 230 mentors exchange ideas, 228 practice, workplace, 226 misconduct vs. poor performance, 203 mission, 12, 28, 38–40, 46, 52, 83, 127, 153, 216 organization’s, 83, 155 purpose, 37 mistakes, 10, 13, 28, 43, 46, 71, 131, 146, 150, 172–73, 184 career, 230 common performance feedback, 115 model, basic ROI, 127 monitor, 48, 72, 83, 100, 130, 168, 177, 232 network performance, 101 morale, organization’s, 26 motivation, 68, 80, 208, 231, 233, 235, 237

N nature, 9, 12, 87, 93, 169, 200, 204 non-defensive, 121 nondiscretionary areas of business, 158 nonperformance, 198, 201

O objectives shared, 11–12 team’s, 84 optimum stress level, 139 organization business plan, 84 effective, 51, 238 empowered, 41 productive, 103 size, 27

INDEX | 257

success, 82, 170 organizational demands, 165 enhancement, 38 strengths, 99 orientation, new employee, 215–16

P performance, 12, 46, 49, 51, 115, 118, 139, 142–43, 196–97, 201, 203–8, 214, 217, 225, 228–29 counseling, 195 discrepancies, 48, 197, 199–201 employee’s, 203, 205, 207 expectations, 207 feedback, 49–50, 206 feedback system, effective, 50 issues, 120, 205–6, 229 management, 7, 195, 197, 199, 201, 203, 205, 207, 209, 211 steps, 199 maximizing employee, 7, 208 organization’s, 144 problems, 196, 199, 202–4 period, evaluation, upcoming, 52 personal attacks, ignore, 72, 120 personalities, 34–35, 207 personnel policies, 216 problems, 81 plans, organization’s, future, 84 poor employee involvement, 187 position requirements, 83–84 positive information, given, effect, 19–20 organizational outcome, 51 Pygmalion, 21–23, 26 thinking, 141, 146 potential candidates, 86–87 power of expectations, 16, 24, 32 pre-employment inquiries, 94

pressure, 36, 131–32, 166 pride, 44, 171–72 principles, 31, 52–53, 162–63 prioritize, 100, 123, 130, 166, 169 problem analysis, 197, 201 behavior, 195–96 problems, real, 199–200 problem solving, 44, 74, 103, 114, 120, 177, 195 process decisions, 42 productivity, worker, increase, 215 products, new, 68, 101–2 programs, manage, 45, 221–22 project management leadership, 6, 123, 125, 127, 129 project sequence, 123, 128–29 project teams, special, 41–42 protégés, 230–31 punishments and rewards, 38–39, 198 Pygmalion effect, 17–18, 20, 24–25, 32 leadership, 16

Q qualifications, an applicant’s, 87– 88, 90, 95 questions, behavior-based, 106–7

R recruiting campaign, 83 efforts, 85 objectives, 84, organization’s, 83 references, 89, 92, 95, 217 regulations, 39, 95, 101–2, 152, 154, 156, 158–59 relax, 96, 134, 137–38, 142 reputation, 19, 29, 77, 80

258 | LEADERSHIP ESSENTIALS

resistance, 6, 148, 180, 182, 186, 192–93, 240 resources, organizational, 150–51 restrictions, hiring, 92–93 resume review, 87, 89 screening, 86 retention, 53, 229 Return on Investment (ROI), 126 reviewing resumes, 86, 89 rewards, 23, 26, 29, 38–40, 82, 103, 143, 214, 229 risks, 39, 114, 181, 191, 221, 230, 232 roadblocks, 56, 192 ROI. See Return on Investment roles, traditional workplace, 232

S selection process, 83, 91–92, 95 self confidence, 34, 37, 46, 146, 169 development, 223 discipline, 14 fulfilling prophecy, 17 senior leaders, 53 sexual harassment, 219–20 skills, 44, 78, 80, 83–85, 88, 103, 178–79, 182, 210, 217, 223, 225, 228–29 computer, 218 deficiency, 197–98, 201 interpersonal, 44 new, 44, 183, 221, 223 person’s, 197 team-based, 32 sleep, 136, 138, 147 smoothing, style, 125 society, 162, 179–80, 219 solving performance problems, 7, 195–96

sound decisions, 31 staff, 25, 97, 103, 105, 167, 170, 173 steps, 38, 42, 67, 72, 76, 115, 127– 30, 175–76, 181, 189–92, 197, 199–201, 206 stress management, 131–33, 135, 137, 139, 141, 143, 145, 147, 222 stress-reduction techniques, 141 supervisor delegates, 225 supervisors, inexperienced, 211 sustaining change, 187

T task assignments, 39 teach, 17, 34, 43, 120, 199, 215, 217, 232 team approach, 57 building, 41, 237 conflicts, resolving, 67 development, stages in, 43 difficulties, 42 effort, 67–68 environment, 66 goals/objectives, 43 interaction, 44 leadership, 41–42, 45, 55 members, 25, 38, 41, 43, 46, 49, 55–57, 67, 69, 74, 85, 96, 158–59, 225, 234 planning, 12 rules, 24, 67, 69 success, 42 teamwork, effective, 41 thoughts, negative, 144–46 time management, 6, 43, 165–67, 169, 171, 173, 175, 177, 221 tips counseling, 207 resolution, 65 time management, 166

INDEX | 259

training, 7, 23, 34, 44, 49, 54, 70, 85, 176, 183, 213, 216–17, 219– 23, 225, 236 truthfulness, 159

V values, organizational, 149, 154 vision organizational, 237 shared, 190, 193 visualize, 31, 135 volunteers, 210–11

W weaknesses, 21, 42, 46–47, 176, 225 who/what/when/where/why elements, 128–29 women, 20, 94 work

assignments, 68, 113 climate surveys, 53 environment, 68, 98, 104, 152, 235 ethics, 87–88 experience, 90 group, 20, 113, 182 make it fun, 236 schedules, 216 surroundings, 184 team, 41–43 unit, ethics, 151 workers, 18, 26, 53, 158 disadvantaged, 19 fellow, 156, 222 workforce, 20, 100, 123, 218–19 workplace conflict, 111 issues, 231 rule, 203

260 | LEADERSHIP ESSENTIALS

LEADERSHIP ESSENTIALS: Practical and Proven Approaches

in Leadership and Supervision by

Olin O. Oedekoven, PhD, John Lavrenz, M.S. Deborah Robbins, M.P.A.

Copyright © 2018 Revised Edition by the Peregrine Leadership Institute, LLC.

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be used or reproduced in any manner whatsoever without written

permission except in the case of brief quotations embodied in critical articles and reviews. For information, write to

Peregrine Leadership Institute Box 741

1001 S. Douglas Hwy., Suite 160 Gillette, WY 82717

ISBN: 978-0-9908279-7-9 (hardcover) ISBN: 978-0-9908279-3-1 (paperback)

ISBN: 978-0-9908279-4-8 (eBook)

Printed in the United States of America

We would like to dedicate this book to John Lavrenz. John was our co-author on the project, colleague and presenter with our leadership development workshops, a mentor to so many leaders over the years, and, most importantly, our friend. His leadership influence is felt throughout in these pages and will continue with all of the lives he touched during his values-based leadership journey. John “walked the talk” as a leader of integrity, and we are all richer for the time we have spent with him.

— Olin O. Oedekoven and Deborah K. Robbins

Contents

Foreword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

Chapter 1 — Understanding Leadership . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 Leadership Defined . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 e Values and Attributes of Leadership . . . . . . . . . . . 13 e Power of Positive Expectations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 e 14 Characteristics of Great Leaders . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

Chapter 2 — Teams, Teamwork, and Leadership Styles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 Leadership Styles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 Leading Teams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 e 6 C’s of Teamwork . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 Seven Keys to Team Leadership . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

Chapter 3 — Conflict in the Workplace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 Dealing with Team Conflict . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 Confronting Difficult Situations with People. . . . . . . . 61 Managing Team Conflict . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66

Chapter 4 — Recruiting and Selecting Your Team . . . . . 77 Hiring for Attitude. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 Why Quality Recruiting and Selection Matters. . . . . . 80 Developing a Recruiting and Selection Strategy . . . . . 82 Reviewing the Resume and Job Application . . . . . . . . 86 Hire the Most Qualified Applicant Using a Fair and Nondiscriminatory Process. . . . . . . . . . . 91 Developing the Interview and Questions . . . . . . . . . . . 96

Chapter 5 — Leadership Communications . . . . . . . . . . 111 Communications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 Active Listening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 Giving and Receiving Feedback. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 Communicating Non-Defensively . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119

Chapter 6 — Project Management Leadership . . . . . . . 123 Project Planning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 Deliberate Decision-Making . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127

Chapter 7 — Stress Management for Leaders . . . . . . . . 131 Managing Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 e 50 Proven Stress Reducers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 Planning to Manage Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139

Chapter 8 — Leadership Ethics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 Ethical Choices. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 Values-based Decision Making . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153 Business Ethics and Compliance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156

Chapter 9 — Time Management and Delegation . . . . . 165 Time Management. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165 Delegation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170

Chapter 10 — Leading Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179 Why Change? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179 Resistance to Change. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182 Barriers to Effective Change. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187 Leading Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189

Chapter 11 — Performance Management . . . . . . . . . . . 195 Identifying and Solving Performance Problems . . . . 195 Performance Counseling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203 Maximizing Employee Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208

Chapter 12 — e Art of Leadership . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213 Teaching and Training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213 Coaching and Mentoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224 Motivating and Inspiring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233 Strategic Leadership . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237

Final oughts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239 References and Selected Bibliograph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241 Meet the Authors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245 Working with Peregrine Leadership Institute. . . . . . . . . . 251 Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253

Foreword

This is not a book that you have in your hands. A book, aer all, is merely a set of written sheets of paper hinged

together on one side to allow readers to flip through and glance casually at each side.

is is an understanding. It is a collective release of leadership tips and techniques as simple as your most basic needs, yet as complex as the nature of the cultural diversities in which you live today. It is a manual on how to live in a world where globalization and technological advances have toppled the walls of traditional leadership hierarchies. It’s a world in which leaders must come to know and understand the evolution of change and how to develop, inspire, and guide their organiza- tions (and their careers) through the tactical challenges coming at them both faster and different than ever before.

Leadership Essentials is a way of understanding how to survive in the ever-changing world of leadership. It is a compilation of many years of experience, of lessons learned along our own leadership journeys.

We lived and breathed every minute of this guide, shedding tears of frustration during those tenuous times and laughing when everything fell into place and we achieved leadership excellence. We held nothing back.

When we decided to put into words all that we have experienced during our leadership upbringings, it made sense to bare it all, to include not only our brief moments of fame, but those oen-staggering moments of shame as well. Aer all, “that which does not kill us only makes us stronger.”

To achieve success in today’s highly complex world of leader- ship, you must be open to the fact that change is inevitable and fast. Nations are experiencing dramatic shifts in their political, economic, and social structures. Terms such as demographics and cultural awareness were once nothing more than mandatory inclusions in company handbooks, policies, and procedures. Now, the essence of those genera- tional and cultural differences is driving decision making like never before. One of the key skills of effective leadership is the ability to lead change. Your survival depends on it.

Remember, leaders are made, not born. We made mistakes and so will you. However, your ability to get up, dust yourself off, and put yourself at the front of the pack again and again will set you apart from those individuals who only wish they were leaders. We don’t profess to know everything there is to know about leadership. What we do know, we’ve included in this guide. Read it well and return to it oen. Each chapter contains real lessons learned from real people. is is your first step of a lifelong journey called “leadership.” Good luck and let the journey begin.

10 | LEADERSHIP ESSENTIALS

Chapter 1

Understanding Leadership

Management is about doing things right. You manage things; you lead people.

Leadership Defined

Leadership is the process of influencing others to understand and agree about what needs to be done, how it can be done effectively, and the process of facilitating individual and collective efforts to accomplish the shared objectives.

Influencing — getting people to willingly do what you want them to do. How do leaders influence?

• Communicate (written, verbal, nonverbal) • Set the example • Demonstrate what right looks like

Understand and Agree — giving reasons for why we do what we need to do. How do leaders develop understanding and agreement? We communicate:

• Company goals (bigger picture) • Our mission/vision • Our departmental goals

Done Effectively — e way you want to accomplish what it is that you want to accomplish. How do leaders develop effective- ness? • Setting and maintaining standards • Teaching, coaching, and mentoring for performance

Facilitating Individual and Collective Efforts — Developing interest, will, desire, and ensuring the resources are there for them to do what they need to do. How do leaders facilitate effort? • Give employees a challenge • When they succeed, praise them • Coach/counsel them on how to do it better • Set the example through your behaviors and actions • Provide the resources they need for the mission

Accomplish the Shared Objectives — e goals, objectives, and the vision. How do leaders develop an understanding of the shared objectives? • Communicate, communicate, and communicate! • Team planning and preparing • Assessing aer the project is completed

You manage things; you lead people. Management is about doing things right. Leadership is about doing the right things. Leadership depends on the situation, the work setting, and the nature of the problem. Leadership also shis with time and responsibilities. Leadership and management are not mutually exclusive activities.

12 | LEADERSHIP ESSENTIALS

You do not have to have subordinates to be a leader—being a leader means striving to BE, KNOW, and DO what is right, all the time. We will, however, make mistakes. How we deal with those mistakes is what distinguishes us as a learning leader.

The Values and Attributes of Leadership

ere are seven essential values and seven critical attributes of leadership.

Leadership Values

Integrity: Demonstrating the courage necessary to support your leadership values and those of the organization; exemplifying your values at all times; treating others fairly and consistently; choosing the harder right over the easier wrong; doing the right things, not just doing things right. is leadership value is essential. If you do not display integrity in your behavior at all times, you may not have the opportunity to recover.

Honesty: Being honest in all your communications, interactions with others, and with yourself; saying what you mean and meaning what you say.

Loyalty: Fulfilling your obligations to your team, peers, and superiors; being loyal to your team and organization with support on and off the job; remaining faithful and steadfast to your values; and holding what others say in trust.

Accountability: Being accountable for all your actions and the results; remembering that while you can delegate author- ity, you can never delegate responsibility—you, as the leader,

UNDERSTANDING LEADERSHIP | 13

are always responsible for the successes and failures of your team, acknowledging the contributions of others, and assum- ing the responsibility even when others will not.

Respect: Treating them with respect; treating others fairly and consistently; giving away respect and not making others have to earn your respect; respecting, acknowledging, and publicly recognizing the contributions of others.

Trust: Being approachable, acknowledging, considerate, accepting, and respectful; building trust within your team through open and honest communications; demonstrating compassion and understanding toward others.

Selflessness: Being a leader who gives credit where credit is due; helping others with the mundane tasks, making a sincere and honest effort to examine problems and issues from the perspective of others; putting the needs of others before your own; promoting the interests of the team and the organization ahead of your own.

Seven Key Leadership Attributes

Self-Discipline: Maintaining self-control over your emotions, temper, and language; following through with what you say you will do; choosing the best course of action that will support the organizational goals; maintaining your enthusiasm and spirit even when the situation is difficult.

Initiative: Seeing what needs to be done and doing it without having to be told what to do; encouraging others to participate

14 | LEADERSHIP ESSENTIALS

and promoting their ideas; giving credit where credit is due; conducting both formal and informal assessments for all work that has been completed to help foster continuous improve- ment in the workplace.

Confidence: Exercising good judgment with people and the work that needs to be done; maintaining your perspective of the bigger picture and the goals of the organization; acting with courage during the difficult times.

Decisive: Making sound, timely decisions and communicating them clearly and concisely; not withholding decisions that you should be making; remaining steadfast with your decisions, but being open to adapting to new information or changed conditions; not yielding to impulses, but rather examining problems logically and systematically without prejudice or bias.

Valuing Diversity: Respecting cultural differences; maintain- ing cultural awareness; appreciating the value of diversity and the benefits it brings to an organization; being mindful and respectful of differences in the workplace and understanding what it takes to motivate, inspire, and lead the cultural and generational differences in the organization.

Empowering: Enabling others to make decisions on their own by giving them an understanding of your intent, along with all information needed to make good decisions on their own; not micromanaging the work; encouraging others to take the initiative; promoting others’ ideas and giving credit where

UNDERSTANDING LEADERSHIP | 15

credit is due; and recognizing and rewarding the achievement of others.

Humility: Recognizing that it is not about you—it is about the success of your team and the organization; looking outward to attribute success and looking inward to apportion failure; and maintaining your sense of humor—always taking the work seriously, but not taking yourself too seriously.

The Power of Positive Expectation1

e concept of Pygmalion Leadership has its roots in ancient Greek mythology. It says that your employees will rise only to the level that you expect them to reach. at is, what you expect of your employees will have a direct bearing on their performance’s outcome.

If you believe that a person will succeed and the person knows this expectation, most people will rise to the level you expect from them.

Your expectations will drive team performance. If you believe that a person will fail, most likely they will believe it as well (and fail). But if you believe that a person will succeed and the person knows this, most people will rise to the level you expect from them.

16 | LEADERSHIP ESSENTIALS

e Self-Fulfilling Prophecy

People have an extraordinary influence on others—and oen don’t know it. Psychologists have demonstrated that the power of expectation alone can influence others’ behavior. The phenomenon has been called the “self-fulfilling prophecy” or the “Pygmalion Effect.” People sometimes become what others expect them to become. Many supervisors are able to develop competent employees and stimulate their performance.

• What is their secret?

• How is the successful supervisor different from the unsuccessful ones, the ones who cannot develop their employees?

• What are the implications of this for the growing problem of turnover and disillusionment among promising employees?

e self-fulfilling prophecy shows how it can either be a useful or a destructive tool in the supervisors’ hands.

e Pygmalion Effect

All it takes is really believing. Supervisors can create better employees by simply believing in them. is is even truer when working with underachievers.

If you tell a grammar school classroom teacher that a child is bright, the teacher will be more supportive, teach more difficult material, allow more time to answer questions, and provide more feedback to that child. e child receiving this attention and basking in the teacher’s beliefs learns more and

UNDERSTANDING LEADERSHIP | 17

is better in school. It does not matter whether the child is actually bright. All that matters is that the teacher believes in the child. is is also true of managers and workers.

is uniquely human phenomenon is called the Pygmalion Effect. It is a persistently held belief in another person such that the belief becomes a reality. e person believed in, becomes the person they are perceived to be.

Did you ever notice that there are some people with whom we naturally feel comfortable: those who think our ideas are great? When they listen to us, we express ourselves clearly and are able to make ideas ring with clarity and insight. This is because they, believing we are bright, see us in this light. We, in turn, knowing how they feel about us, work hard to make sure they are satisfied with our answers.

e opposite is also true. ere are people with whom we are not comfortable and whom we believe do not like us. We avoid these people and do not do our best when we are around them. We are hesitant and much less articulate. Most of the time, we are less likely to try very hard to be understood. We become victims of a label that someone gave us.

This is also true in the supervisor/employee relationship. Researchers looked at twelve separate research studies from different work settings involving a total of 2,874 participants and using a technique called meta-analysis. All studies involved employees and their supervisors. Each study randomly assigned employees to two groups, and supervisors were told that one group of employees had considerably greater potential than

18 | LEADERSHIP ESSENTIALS

the other. us, supervisors developed a positive attitude about one group of employees who were basically no different than the employees in the other group.

Employees in the positive-information group responded with greater productivity with only two exceptions. e magnitude of these gains seemed to be dependent on the circumstances of the work relationship. The greatest gains were seen in military training settings. The researchers suspect this is because in the military, it is easier to control the information supervisors receive, whereas in a business situation, word-of- mouth and reputation may bleed into the situation, making less believable the positive information received by the supervisor.

However, when looking at findings in elementary school settings, there seems to be something that happens in a learning situation that is different from what happens in a work situation. It is possible that a positive attitude on the part of supervisors may have a greater effect on learning than it does on work productivity.

e second-greatest gains were obtained in situations where disadvantaged workers (those who were less likely to be success- ful) were randomly assigned to two groups. e group for which the supervisor was given positive information made significant gains over the group for which the supervisor was not given positive information.

It is suspected that people with low self-esteem and self-efficacy are more likely to respond to positive feedback. is indicates that supervisors have the potential to create high-performing

UNDERSTANDING LEADERSHIP | 19

employees. All that is needed is for them to believe that an employee has potential. is is probably because the employee is more fully engaged and motivated when working for a positive-thinking supervisor, thereby allowing the organization to tap into their full capabilities.

ere were fewer gains noted when supervisors had less direct interaction with subordinates, such as in sales situations where employees worked independently and away from their supervisor. In addition, women supervisors were less likely to be affected by the Pygmalion Effect. It was observed that women, regardless of their beliefs, seemed to treat employees equally. erefore, the group of employees about whom a woman supervisor was given positive information made less significant gains over the other group. This was even more pronounced when the supervisor and all the employees were women.

The Pygmalion Effect is an important key to creating or improving a workforce. It believes in your employee’s capabiltiy to achieve goals. Everything should be done to create a highly positive attitude about employees in the minds of supervisors, and employees should be made to feel that their supervisors and the organization believe in their potential as people.

Leaders should present new employees to supervisors in a positive light while highlighting the new employee’s potential, and making sure that the supervisor and the work group have a clear expectation that the new employee will make a significant impact on the group’s ability to succeed. Supervisors should

20 | LEADERSHIP ESSENTIALS

be trained in how to impart a positive, motivating attitude that fosters a belief in the employee’s ability to perform.

Employees should have a clear understanding that there is no question of them performing well. Employees should be given training opportunities that bring out potential rather than focus on weaknesses. Overall, the organization should strive to create an understanding among its employees that they all have potential and all that is needed is for that potential to be brought out.

Climate

Negative Pygmalion

Poor behaviors that communicate low expectations include: • Being distracted, in a hurry, or not giving an employee your full attention

• Verbally criticizing an employee’s competence or potential

• Negative nonverbal cues through tone of voice, or face and body gestures

Positive Pygmalion

Good behaviors that communicate high expectations include:

• Being verbally supportive and encouraging

• Providing positive nonverbal cues through tone of voice, eye contact, facial expressions, body posture, and movements

• Helping employees set challenging goals

UNDERSTANDING LEADERSHIP | 21

Input

Negative Pygmalion

Poor behaviors that communicate low expectations include:

• Not giving people vital information to do a job

• Not giving people sufficient direction or guidance

• Waiting too long to check on progress or provide any needed course correction

• Treating people like they are incompetent by providing only limited or sketchy information (only on a “need to know” basis)

Positive Pygmalion

Good behaviors that communicate high expectations include:

• Spending extra time with people

• Providing ideas to follow up on or sources for further information (giving team members enough resources or ideas while allowing them to retain autonomy and ownership of projects)

Output Negative Pygmalion

Poor behaviors that communicate low expectations include:

• Cutting people off when they are speaking

• Not seeking their opinions or insights

• Limiting the number and scope of their work assignments

22 | LEADERSHIP ESSENTIALS

Positive Pygmalion

Good behaviors that communicate high expectations include:

• Allowing them to express their opinions and ideas (even disagreeing opinions)

• Giving them new assignments (or a variety of assignments, including incrementally challenging assignments)

• Giving them opportunities to learn or practice skills (e.g., training, projects)

• Allowing them to gain exposure to, and visibility with, other people and departments (especially upward in the organization)

Feedback Negative Pygmalion

Poor behaviors that communicate low expectations include:

• Providing mostly negative, vague, or limited feedback

• Criticizing the person (instead of the behaviors), making negative generalizations (e.g., negative labels)

Positive Pygmalion

Good behaviors that communicate high expectations include: • Providing helpful suggestions on how people might be able to improve or do things better

• Positively reinforcing desirable behaviors (praise, recognition, rewards, etc.). is should be sincere, specific and frequent

UNDERSTANDING LEADERSHIP | 23

• Making sure any feedback regarding poor performance is done in a positive way, where the employee can sense that you have their best interests at heart and you reinforce your belief in their ability to do better

Expectations A well-defined expectation is the foundation for goal achieve- ment. It formalizes:

• What is to be accomplished • Who will be involved • When the activity will be accomplished • How resources will be used

Expectations should include team values and team rules. Make life easier for yourself—write down the expectations, rules, and your code of conduct, and share these with your team.

S. M. A. R. T. Objectives

Specific Measurable Achievable Realistic Time-Bound

In summary, use the Pygmalion Effect, oen known as the Power of Expectations, by considering:

24 | LEADERSHIP ESSENTIALS

• Every supervisor has expectations of the people who report to them.

• Supervisors communicate these expectations consciously or unconsciously.

• People consciously or unconsciously pick up on these expectations from their supervisor.

• People perform in ways that are consistent with the expectations they have picked up on from the supervisor.

The power of expectations enables team members to excel in response to a manager’s message that they are capable of success and expected to succeed. e Pygmalion Effect can also undermine staff performance when the subtle communication from the manager tells them the opposite. ese cues are oen subtle and examples include when a supervisor fails to praise a staff person’s performance as frequently as they praise others or when a supervisor talks less to a particular employee than to others. Principles for People Development Success in developing others is how well you accomplish each of the following:

• Value People: Concerns attitude • Commit to People: Concerns time • Integrity with People: Concerns character • Standard for People: Concerns vision • Influence over People: Concerns leadership

UNDERSTANDING LEADERSHIP | 25

Successful People Developers are those who:

• Make the right assumptions about people • Ask the right questions of people • Give the right assistance to people

What you believe about yourself influences what you believe about your people. We are measured not by what we are, but by the perception of what we seem to be; not by what we say, but how we are heard; and not by what we do, but how we appear to do it.

Positive Pygmalion Characteristics

• Belief in themselves and confidence in what they are doing.

• Belief in their ability to develop the talents of their employees: to select, train, and motivate them.

• Ability to communicate to workers that their expectations are realistic and achievable.

• Belief that workers can learn to make decisions and to take the initiative.

• Preference for the rewards that come from the success and increased skills of their subordinates over the rewards they get from supervisors.

Everything Rises and Falls on Leadership • Personnel determine the organization’s potential. • Relationships determine the organization’s morale.

26 | LEADERSHIP ESSENTIALS

• Structure determines the organization’s size. • Vision determines the organization’s direction. • Leadership determines the organization’ success.

The 14 Characteristics of Great Leaders

1 Integrity: e qualities of absolute honesty, trustworthiness, uprightness of character, and high moral principles. Integrity can be practiced by doing the following:

• Tell the truth to both superiors and subordinates, all the time.

• Stand for what you believe in, even if the belief is unpopular.

• Use your power to work toward your organization’s goals or for the welfare of your coworkers, not for your own personal gain.

2 Knowledge: You will quickly gain the respect and confidence of your employees by showing them you are knowledgeable about your area of responsibility as well as theirs. Keep in mind that learning is a continual process. To develop and demonstrate knowledge you should:

• Ask questions when unsure.

• Notice and correct substandard performance in others, particularly those who work for you.

• Show your employees, by your actions, how they should perform their duties.

UNDERSTANDING LEADERSHIP | 27

3 Courage: Courage is the quality that acknowledges fear but allows you to meet danger or opposition calmly and with firmness. Courage is developed when you:

• Place duty and commitment to your organization’s mission over personal feelings and desires.

• Look for and willingly accept responsibilities.

• Stand for what is right, even if it is unpopular.

• Never blame others for your mistakes.

4 Decisiveness: Decisiveness is the ability to weigh all the facts and make timely decisions. To develop decisiveness, you should:

• Get into the habit of considering several points of view for each problem, and then make your best choice.

• Know when not to make a decision.

• Remember that a good decision now is usually better than a perfect decision later.

• Be willing to adjust your decision if you realize it is no longer effective.

5 Dependability: Leaders are dependable when they fulfil their commitments. Dependability is developed by:

• Being on time and prepared.

• Accomplishing your assigned tasks, even if you face obstacles.

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• Building a reputation for keeping your word when you have made a promise.

• Demonstrating loyalty to your friends and supporters.

6 Initiative: Initiative is recognizing what must be done and then doing it without being told to do so. Practice the following to develop initiative:

• Find tasks that need to be done and then do them without being told.

• Look for better ways to do things.

• Consider strategic issues and look for ways to overcome future obstacles.

7 Tact: Tact is the ability to deal with others without causing ill feelings or offense. In order to develop tact, do the following:

• Apply the Golden Rule: Treat others as you would want to be treated.

• Check yourself for tolerance and patience. If you lack these qualities, make efforts to change.

8 Justice: To be just is to be fair. Personal feelings, emotions, and prejudices must not be allowed to influence your decisions. To improve the trait of justice, make sure you practice the following:

• Apply rewards and reprimands to all consistently.

• Listen to all sides of an issue before making a decision.

• Be aware of your counterproductive prejudices and seek to rid yourself of them.

UNDERSTANDING LEADERSHIP | 29

9 Enthusiasm: Enthusiasm is showing sincere interest and eagerness in performing your job. To develop enthusiasm in others, you should:

• Consistently exhibit a positive attitude toward others. • Emphasize the employee’s successes.

• Encourage others to overcome any obstacles they encounter.

10 Bearing: Your bearing is your general appearance and conduct. Bearing is demonstrated by:

• Controlling your voice and gestures so that emotional extremes do not show in your actions. Sometimes it is appropriate to show some anger, but you never should appear to lose your temper.

• Not reprimanding anyone in the presence of others.

11 Endurance: Maintaining the physical and mental stamina to perform your job under difficult conditions and for long periods of time. Maintain endurance by doing the following:

• Avoid activities that lower your physical and mental stamina.

• Maintain a proper diet and exercise.

• Finish every job, regardless of the obstacles.

12 Unselfishness: You always should give credit where credit is due. To be unselfish, you should:

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• Give credit to employees for jobs well done and ensure that any recognition or praise from higher levels is passed on to deserving individuals.

• You will be surprised at how much respect you will receive from employees when you help them with some of their tasks.

• Make a sincere, honest attempt to look at situations from the other person’s perspective.

13 Loyalty: Loyalty is the quality of faithfulness to your prin- ciples, your country, organization, superiors, and subordinates. To practice loyalty you should:

• Remember loyalty is a two-way street. Be loyal to those above and below you.

• Stand up for your organization and its members when they are unjustly attacked.

• Discuss your problems with those who can help solve the problems. Do not gossip.

14 Judgment: Judgment is the ability to weigh facts logically, to consider possible solutions, and to reach sound decisions. Judgment includes using common sense. To develop the trait of judgment, you:

• Do not yield to impulse. ink about the possible effects of what you are about to do.

• Try to visualize the situation from the other person’s perspective. When in doubt, seek good counsel from those who can best help you.

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Leadership, the process of influencing others to obtain desired goals, is based on a set of core values

exemplified in through the behaviors and actions of the leader. Leadership means dealing with the

human dimension of the workplace and starts with oneself and extends to the leader’s team.

In the next chapter, we will explore the team-based skills of successful leaders.

–––––––––––– 1 Adapted from The Pygmalion Effect: Managing the Power of Positive Expectations, Participant’s Workbook. (2001). Carlsbad, CA: CRM Learning, L.P.

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Chapter 2

Teams, Teamwork and Leadership Styles

If you are able to use only one leadership style in a given situation, then you are inflexible and will

have difficulty operating in situations where that style does not fit.

Leadership Styles

All people are shaped by what they have seen, what they have learned, and whom they have met. Who you are determines the way you work with other people. Some people are happy and smiling all the time. Others are serious. Some leaders can wade into a room full of strangers and within five minutes have everyone engaged and thinking, “How have I lived so long without meeting this person?”

Some very competent leaders are uncomfortable in social situations. Most of us are somewhere in between. Although leadership theory describes at great length how you should interact with your subordinates and how you must strive to learn and improve your leadership skills, you always must be yourself. Anything else comes across as fake and insincere.

Effective leaders are flexible enough to adjust their leadership style and techniques to the people they lead and the situations they encounter. Some subordinates respond best to coaxing, suggestions, or gentle prodding. Others need, and sometimes even want, the verbal equivalent of a kick in the pants. Treat- ing people fairly does not mean treating them as if they were clones of one another. In fact, if you treat everyone the same way, you probably are being unfair because different people need different things from you.

ink of it this way: Suppose you must teach safety procedures to a large group of employees ranging in experience from new to very experienced. e senior employees know a great deal about the subject while the new employees know very little. To meet all their needs, you must teach the new employees more than you teach the senior employees.

If you train the new employees only on the advanced skills the senior employees need, the new employees will be lost. If you make the senior employees sit through training on the basic tasks the new employees need, you will waste the senior employee’s time. You must match the training (and your leadership) to the experience of those being trained. In the same way, you must adjust your leadership style and techniques to the experience of your people and characteristics of your organization.

Obviously, you would not lead senior team members the same way you would lead new employees. But the easiest distinc- tions to make are those of rank and experience. You must take into account personalities, self-confidence, self-esteem—all

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the elements of the complex mix of character traits that make dealing with people so difficult and so rewarding. One of the many things that makes your job tough is that you must figure out what your subordinates need and what they are able to do in order to get their best performance even when they do not know themselves.

When discussing leadership styles, many people focus on the extremes, autocratic and democratic. Autocratic leaders tell people what to do with no explanations. eir message is, “I am the boss. You will do it because I said so.” Democratic leaders use their personalities to persuade subordinates.

ere are many shades in between. e following paragraphs discuss five of them. However, bear in mind that competent leaders mix different elements of all these styles according to place, task, and people involved.

Using different leadership styles in different situations or elements of different styles in the same situation is not in- consistent. Rather, the opposite is true. If you are able to use only one leadership style in a given situation, then you are inflexible and will have difficulty operating in situations where that style does not fit.

Directing Leadership Style

e directing style is leader-centered. Leaders using this style do not solicit input from their subordinates. ey give detailed instructions on how, when, and where they want a task performed. ey then closely supervise its execution.

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e directing style may be appropriate when time is short and leaders do not have a chance to explain things. ey may simply give orders: Do this; Go there; Move. Leaders may revert to this style in fast-paced operations or in emergency situations, even with experienced subordinates. But if the leader has created a climate of trust, subordinates will assume the leader has switched to the directing style because of the circumstances.

e directing style is also appropriate when leading inexperi- enced teams or individuals who are not yet trained to operate on their own. In this kind of situation, the leader probably will remain close to the action to make sure things go smoothly.

Some people mistakenly believe the directing style means using abusive and demeaning language, or threatening and intimidating others. is is wrong. If you are ever tempted to act this way, whether due to pressure, stress, or what seems like improper behavior by a subordinate, ask yourself: Would I want to work for someone like me? Would I want my boss to see and hear me treat subordinates this way? Would I want to be treated this way?

Participating Leadership Style

e participating style centers on both the leader and team. Given a job to do, leaders ask subordinates for input, infor- mation, and recommendations, but make the final decision on what to do. is style is especially appropriate for leaders who have time for such consultations or who are dealing with experienced subordinates.

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The delegating style involves giving subordinates the authority to solve problems and make decisions without first clearing them through the leader.

e team-building approach lies behind the participating leadership style. When subordinates help to create a plan it becomes, at least in part, their plan. is ownership creates a strong incentive to invest the effort necessary to make the plan work. Asking for this kind of input is a sign of a leader’s strength and self-confidence. But asking for advice does not mean the leader is obligated to follow it. e leader alone is always responsible for the quality of decisions and the outcome of plans.

Delegating Leadership Style

e delegating style involves giving subordinates the authority to solve problems and make decisions without first clearing them through the leader. Leaders with mature and experienced subordinates, or who want to create a learning experience for subordinates, oen need only to give them authority to make decisions along with the necessary resources and a clear understanding of the mission’s purpose. As always, the leader is responsible for what does or does not happen, but in the delegating leadership style, the leader holds subordinate leaders accountable for their actions. is is the style most oen used by managers dealing with senior supervisors, and by organizational and strategic leaders.

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Transformational and Transactional Leadership Styles

ere is a distinction between the transformational leadership style, which focuses on inspiration and change, and the transactional leadership style, which focuses on rewards and punishments. We do not deny that rewards and punishments are effective and sometimes necessary. However, carrots and sticks alone do not inspire individuals to excel.

Transformational Leadership Style

is style transforms subordinates by challenging them to rise above their immediate needs and self-interest. e transfor- mational style is developmental. It emphasizes individual growth (both professional and personal) and organizational enhancement. Key features of the transformational style include empowering and mentally stimulating subordinates.

The transformational leaders consider and motivate team members as individuals first, then the group. To use the transformational style, you must have the courage to commu- nicate your intent and then step back and let your subordinates work. You must also be aware that immediate benefits oen are delayed until the job or task is accomplished.

e transformational style allows you to take advantage of the skills and knowledge of experienced subordinates who may have better ideas on how to accomplish a mission. Leaders who use this style communicate reasons for their decisions or actions, and build a broader understanding and ability to exercise initiative, and operate effectively with subordinates.

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Not all situations lend themselves to this style. It is most effective during periods that call for change or when presenting new opportunities. It also works well when organizations face a crisis, instability, mediocrity, or disenchantment. It may not be effective when subordinates are inexperienced, when the mission allows little deviation from accepted procedures, or when subordinates are not motivated. Leaders who use only the transformational leadership style limit their ability to influence individuals in these and similar situations.

Transactional Leadership Style

In contrast, some leaders employ only the transactional leadership style. is style includes such techniques as:

• Motivating subordinates to work by offering rewards or threatening punishment.

• Prescribing task assignments in writing.

• Outlining all the conditions necessary to complete the task, including the applicable rules and regulations, the benefits of success, and the consequences, which include possible disciplinary actions or failure.

• Management by exception, where leaders focus on their subordinates’ failures, showing up only when something goes wrong.

e leader who relies exclusively on the transactional style, rather than combining it with the transformational style, evokes only short-term commitment from subordinates and discourages risk taking and innovation.

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ere are situations where the transactional style is acceptable, if not preferred. For example, a leader who wants to emphasize safety could reward the organization, if the organization prevents any serious safety-related incidents for a two-month period. In this case, the leader’s intent appears clear. Safe habits are rewarded, but unsafe acts will not be tolerated.

However, using only the transactional style can make the leader’s efforts appear self-serving. In this example, employees might interpret the leader’s attempt to reward safe practices as an effort to look good by focusing on something that is unimportant but has the boss’s attention. Such perceptions can destroy the trust subordinates have in the leader. Using the transactional style alone also can deprive subordinates of opportunities to grow, because it leaves no room for honest mistakes.

The most effective leaders combine techniques from the transformational and transactional leadership styles to fit the situation. A strong base of transactional understanding, supplemented by charisma, inspiration, and individualized concern for each subordinate, produces the most enthusiastic and genuine response. Subordinates will be more committed, creative, and innovative. ey also will be more likely to take calculated risks to accomplish their mission.

Leaders can avoid any misunderstanding of their intent by combining transformational and transactional techniques. ey can explain why safety is important (intellectual stimulation) while, at the same time, encourage their subordinates to take care of each other (individualized concern).

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Leading Teams

Few leadership roles are as important in empowered organiza- tions as team building. Effective teamwork is the foundation of productivity. In this chapter we will explore several important topics concerning team leadership. For the purposes of clarification, when we refer to “team” in team leadership, we mean your day-to-day work team and/or any special project teams that you might be in charge of temporarily.

To get you started, the following are some suggestions for building effective teams. ese concepts will be discussed in more detail throughout this section.

• Allow time for introductions. When the team is formed, allow people to get to know one another, and to clarify roles and goals.

• Show respect for everyone’s points of view at the earliest point possible. Try to discourage dominant behaviors by some team members. Research shows that the earliest moments of a team’s life define how its members will interact thereaer.

• Establish clear communication channels. Model good listening behavior and encourage it in others. Determine how team members will communicate, how problems will be analyzed, how decisions will be made, and how the team’s work will get done.

• Encourage balanced participation early on. To discourage sub-teams from forming, ensure balanced participation and move people around so they interact with everyone else.

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• Constructively manage conflict and team difficulties. Do this as soon as the conflicts occur. Never allow a problem to fester.

• Avoid imposing your own ground rules and processes. Instead, let the team decide collectively on its rules for conduct, meetings, and reaching consensus. Research shows that teams that make their own process decisions come together more quickly and are more productive.

As a supervisor, you will be in charge of a team of employees. Your team may include your regular work team or it may also include a special project team created for a short-term purpose. Whether it is your work team or a project team, there are several fundamental principles of team leadership.

A team is a number of persons associated together in work or activity working toward a common goal. A team can either be made of members selected by a team leader or the team leader may be assigned to an existing team.

e first step towards ensuring a team’s success is to look at the abilities, experiences, strengths, and weaknesses of each potential team member. Interview team members to see what types of tasks they have been assigned in the past and then ask for results associated with each task.

Next, look at your own strengths and weaknesses to see how they align with those of your team. Look at the overall project, goals, deliverables, and/or strategies. Finally, select and assign

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team members based on each member’s abilities and according to project requirements, not necessarily on their preferences.

Be a visionary! See beyond the project’s endpoint. Tell your team the program goals and objectives, the important mile- stones involved, and the requirements for the deliverables. Discuss and debate the strategies and metrics for meeting the team’s goals/objectives with the team members. Delegate tasks to the team members most qualified to handle them. Rely on them to teach others these tasks. Most importantly, trust your team, being careful not to micromanage them nor to being too hands-off. Be there for them when they need your help.

Empower your team members! Have an “open door” policy and allow your team members to make decisions and mistakes without fear of retaliation. Praise them when they do well and counsel them when they make mistakes or do wrong. Share the credit, take the blame. By empowering your team members, they will help you with future endeavors.

Stages in Team Development 2

Forming. is beginning stage could last a few days or go on for weeks. People think about their new tasks and new environ- ment. Members learn about each other, and plan their work and their new roles around these new relationships. Emotions are positive. The work team should also learn about team processes in preparation for rough times ahead. ey need to learn the rudiments of conflict resolution, communication, time management, and group decision-making.

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Storming. e anticipation and enthusiasm of the forming stage quickly fall away as the team faces a myriad of technical, interpersonal, and social problems. They fight and argue. People feel frustration, resentment, and anger as problems fester and work goes undone. Leaders also experience frustration and are tempted to intervene.

Members are on an emotional roller coaster from elation to depression and back again. Without training and support, the team may not progress. Conflict has a bad reputation. But, conflict is normal, natural, and sometimes even necessary. Handled well, conflict can be used to build skills and confidence as the team transitions to the Norming Stage.

Norming. Here, team members work through individual and social issues. ey establish their own norms of behavior and begin to trust each other. As the team develops interpersonal skills, it also hones other skills. Members begin to leverage the strengths of each other for the good of the team. They become increasingly adept at problem solving, learning new skills and cross training each other.

Performing. Now things begin to click. Members help each other, conflict is depersonalized, problems are solved, and goals are achieved and exceeded. Satisfaction and pride become dominant emotions. e team takes pride in its work, in its accomplishments, and in its team interaction. Individuals take pride in their membership.

Adjourning. Some teams have an end, and there can be disappointment and sadness when a team is done and no

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longer working together. e loss is real and members should be given time to adjust to their new roles, whether it is an individual one or a new team role.

Team Leadership

A manager is a person who conducts business or a person who directs a team. To manage is to exercise executive, administrative, and supervisory direction; to work upon or try to alter for a purpose and to succeed in accomplishing. Managing is the process of organizing people and tasks to accomplish some purpose.

A leader, however, is a person who leads, or a person who has commanding authority or influence. To lead is to guide in a way especially by going in advance; to guide someone or something along the way. A leader is someone who blazes a trail and takes others along for the ride in order to further a cause.

When you manage, you complete projects and programs by organizing people and tasks in a logical order. Leading means creating a path for others in order to accomplish a greater objective. People lead in order to create a legacy that will be maintained by others for the long run.

You need the qualities of both a manager and leader in order to accomplish your projects and programs, and to create a plan for the viability of your organization (develop short-term and a long-range plans). In short, the aim of management is to accomplish tasks, projects, and programs effectively, while leadership aims to help others achieve their personal best.

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Learning to Lead

Focus on quality by:

• Setting performance standards

• Outlining realistic goals

• Striving to ensure the highest quality with all objectives

• Maintaining a checklist of your duties and performance of duties

When leading your team, you should: • Develop strengths — self-confidence and self-determination

• Set high goals

• Eliminate weaknesses — face up to your own mistakes • Prepare to lead — understand your team members

• Be a strategist

Examine the process — involve everyone in decision making. Conduct a detailed analysis to determine background infor- mation. Plan effectively for the team and then implement your plans, both for short and long terms.

To better assess your team and mission, consider a SWOT analysis:

• Strengths: What are your competencies? What do you do well?

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• Weaknesses: What are your shortfalls and competi- tive disadvantages? What can you improve on?

• Opportunities: What is out there that you can take advantage of?

• Threats: What areas are deteriorating? What do you need to be aware of?

Communication

Recognize barriers. People do not always think or hear alike. To achieve clarity with your communications, you should:

• Be clear in your own mind about what you want to communicate?

• Deliver the message clearly using the right media.

• Ensure the message has been clearly and correctly understood as intended.

Principles for People Development

Success in developing others will depend on how well you accomplish each of the following:

• Value of People: Your attitude about others

• Commitment to People: How much time will you give them?

• Integrity with People: Character, or how you treat them

• Standard of People: Vision, or how you see them

• Influence over People: How you lead them

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By observing and drawing on the experiences of leaders successful in people development, we learn there are three main areas where they differ from those who are not. Successful people developers make the right assumptions about people, ask the right questions, and give the right assistance when needed.

When determining standards for your team, you should:

• Involve employees in developing standards and/or goals and timetables.

• Provide personal examples of topnotch performance- based work on which standards can be developed.

• Upgrade performance standards whenever there is a need and an opportunity.

• Make standards measurable so you can determine successful outcomes.

Measures and objectives are important to help your team chart its direction. ey tell the team what it is supposed to be doing. Measures and objectives are necessary to:

• Monitor and evaluate the use of company resources and the level of controllable costs.

• Establish measurable and realistic work targets and deadlines.

• Monitor performance for any discrepancies that need to be addressed.

• Establish procedures and rules that employees are expected to follow.

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• Drive interest in progress toward longer-term objectives or goals.

Performance Feedback

Performance feedback is critical to tell your team members how they are doing. Specifically, performance feedback:

• Tells people how they are doing on a day-by-day basis as well as over extended periods of time.

• Is important for coaching and training employees on how to improve performance.

• Is used to determine if goals and objectives are being met.

• Allows employees the opportunity to change their performance.

Performance feedback is an essential element of the supervisor/ subordinate relationship. The vast majority of people want to make a difference in their place of work. They want to be recognized for their accomplishments and learn how to become even better. ey want to know where they stand. People crave feedback that is honest, positive, objective, timely, and fair. But performance feedback is rare.

ere are three main obstacles to giving effective feedback in today’s leadership environment. The first is the pace of operations. Supervisors oen say they are so busy that they do not have the time to devote to giving feedback properly.

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e second has to do with working relationships in today’s business environment. e good news is that more and more supervisors are taking the time to get to know their subordinates and their families. ey say their “door is always open.” e downside of this is that this type of working relationship can make it hard for supervisors to tell their subordinates that they aren’t doing their job well and they could be more effective.

The third obstacle lies in the willingness and readiness of the subordinate to receive feedback. Subordinates might have trouble recognizing there are areas in which they can improve. They might be defensive or concerned for their jobs. There might be personality differences or other issues between the supervisor and subordinates that interfere with communication.

Effective supervisors must be aware of all the dynamics of the relationship and make appropriate adjustments in their approach to feedback.

A formal feedback process has important advantages for supervisors. It motivates subordinates and helps them become more effective. By establishing dialogue with subordinates, supervisors can better understand their individual wants and needs, and the climate of the organization. In organizations where retaining quality people is a high priority, an effective performance feedback system is essential.

In order for performance feedback to be effective, it must follow these key principles:

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Specific: Feedback must be based on observable behavior, not on people’s feelings or the conclusions drawn from their behavior. For example, “Last Friday morning I saw you help Mary fix a problem on her computer. Your willingness to share your expertise is a great example of teamwork and makes this a more effective organization.” This specific example, tied to a positive organizational outcome, is more effective than saying “You are a helpful person,” since the subordinate can link the feedback to an actual event.

Timely: Feedback should be given in a timely manner so that both parties can recall the specific behavior involved.

Actionable: Feedback should be based on something over which a person has control. When necessary, the supervisor should identify ways to improve performance.

Measurable: Goals and objectives should be stated in terms where both parties will know if the goals are achieved.

Achievable: Performance measures should be realistic and within the resources that are available to the subordinate.

Positive: Give both positive and critical feedback, but tip the balance in the positive direction. e Center for Creative Leadership suggests a 4:1 ratio of positive to critical feedback.

When new employees come on board, the supervisor should meet with them as soon after their arrival as possible.

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Non-evaluative: Opinions, perceptions, and reactions should be differentiated from facts. Don’t psychoanalyze; avoid inferences and interpretations. Avoid labels.

Establish a dialogue: e effective feedback session is not a one-way communication. The supervisor should ask the subordinate if they fully understand what is being said and then listen carefully to the response. e supervisor should ensure the subordinate understands their role in the organization and how it contributes to the goals and mission.

When new employees come on board, the supervisor should meet with them as soon aer their arrival as possible. e purpose of this initial feedback session is to help establish the relationship between the supervisor and employee. It is also about setting expectations for the upcoming evaluation period. It is not necessary to negotiate objectives with the subordinate, but the supervisor should help the subordinate take ownership of the goals and internalize expectations. Both parties should leave the initial feedback session with a clear understanding of what is expected. e supervisor provides a written record of the feedback session. is written record is held in confidence.

Supervisors often are required to conduct a follow-up feedback session midway through the evaluation period. is session should be conducted using the principles above and should address the extent to which the expectations were met. As before, a confidential written record is provided.

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e annual performance appraisal system is not a substitute for good communication or for timely, routine feedback. For example, if the subordinate is consistently late for routine meetings, it makes no sense to wait until the annual appraisal cycle to make them aware of the problem. In the same way, workers who consistently perform above standards should not have to wait months to know that their work is appreciated. Supervisors should not assume that, because certain behaviors are obvious to them, they are equally obvious to the subordinate. Daily or routine feedback needs to remain consistent with the principles above.

Annual performance discussions should have no surprises for the employee. e evaluation should summarize the positive and critical feedback given to the employee during specified time periods.

Finally, supervisors who routinely give feedback (both positive and corrective) to subordinates may want to follow up with a personal note or memo. It is possible that the feedback is so routine (or the subordinate so unreceptive) that the subordi- nate misses the message or doesn’t even realize that feedback has taken place.

Giving feedback is a key responsibility of a leader. Work climate surveys strongly suggest that job satisfaction, morale, and retention are closely related to the ability of a leader to provide feedback. Senior leaders must set the example for the organization by giving timely feedback and demanding that leaders at all levels do the same.

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The 6 C’s of Teamwork

Competence

• Develops and meets standards

• Continuously improves effectiveness through training

• Successfully carries out assignments

• Works together productively

• Strives to increase the level of knowledge concerning individuals, departments, and company issues

Candor

• Honest with each other, encouraging others to speak freely

• Actively listens to the opinions of others with an open mind

• Seeks new ideas and challenges old ones

• Confronts problems and controversial issues assertively

Consensus

• Uses facts to support strong opinions

• Develops innovative solutions together

• Uses a win-win approach to conflict

• Develops excellent solutions and supports final decisions

• Strives for total agreement on important issues

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Critique

• Candid, but sensitive to others

• Uses examples and facts as a basis for drawing conclusions

• Focuses on improvements

• Evaluates processes during and aer projects

Cooperation

• Believes we are all in this together

• Involves all members fully

• Shares ideas and information willingly

• Sets challenging goals

Commitment

• Sets rules and then follows them

• Holds self and others accountable

• Seeks team success over individual success

• Commits to following the 6 C’s

Seven Keys to Team Leadership

1. Help the team identify its purpose. People work more effectively when they understand the goals they are trying to achieve. As a leader, it is your job to help the team members see the desired outcome of their efforts, and help them set specific goals and milestones along the way.

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2. Set the scope and boundaries. Teams need to know what they should tackle and what is too big or not their responsi- bility. By helping teams manage the scope of their work you will keep them more focused and on target to reach the goals more quickly.

3. Show, through both your words and actions, that you believe in them. If you do not believe in the team concept, you will not effectively lead teams. If you do believe both in the concept and in a particular team’s potential, you need to let them know that. Show through both your words and actions that you believe in them. Once they have purpose and goals and your belief in them, they are on their way to success.

4. Define your role. Your role is to lead, not to do the work or make all of the decisions. Tell team members what your role is and isn’t. Help them see how you are relying on their experience, knowledge and intellect in the completion of the team’s work.

5. Be a supporter. Support the team with your actions. Do not just delegate the work to the team and then wipe your hands of any further responsibility. Teams will experience obstacles and roadblocks. It is your job to remove those road- blocks, find additional resources, and provide support. It is like a hike. If you are in front of a group on a hike, you will do your best to remove impediments that might slow down or injure those that follow. Your role on a business team is just the same.

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6. Be a facilitator. Help the team succeed. Provide guidance when needed. Remain hands off as much as you can. Let the team succeed and develop itself toward greater achievement at the same time. To facilitate means “to make easier,” and that is your role. Remember that you chose to use a team to accomplish the task, so let it achieve that goal.

7. Be careful about what you say. Teams oen look to leaders to make the final decisions or assume that the leader has veto power on any decision in the end. If you really support the team approach, and are genuine in wanting and needing its input, you need to sit back and let team members speak. If you are always the first person to talk on a subject, you will slowly stifle their willingness to participate. Team members will subconsciously assume that your word is golden— whether they agree or not. Because of your position, you must abstain from the early part of a dialogue on issues and share your thoughts near the end of the conversation.

–––––––––––– 2 Adapted from Bruce uckman’s 1965 model of Forming, Storming, Norming, and Performing.

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5 |

Chapter 3

Conflict in the Workplace

It is always best to confront difficulties at the lowest level in the organization.

Dealing with Team Conflict

e team concept creates an environment where conflict is bound to happen. Few people are trained to deal with conflict, or have difficulty making discussions with peers or subordi- nates, and they don’t enjoy it. However, as a supervisor, it is essential for you to learn how to handle conflict as it is part of the responsibility of your position. With the right tools, you too, can learn how to handle these discussions effectively.

Understanding how conflict happens at work can be helpful for anticipating and fending off situations that may become hostile. While it may seem that conflict can erupt over the slightest of issues in the workplace, the following are the typical reasons why it occurs.

1. Incompatible goals between individuals or groups of individuals can be created. For example, imagine a head bank teller telling a subordinate that rapid service is an absolute must from now on—while at the same time, the community relation's director instructs all employees to focus their efforts upon quality customer contact. One

can imagine how quickly problems could arise between the teller and the head teller if speed is sacrificed for quality time with the customer.

2. A second source of conflict has to do with our personal values. For example, it does not take long for employees who enjoy going to happy hour aer work to begin distancing themselves from those who want to go home to their families at night. Such distancing oen is accompanied by gossiping, suspicion, distrust, and ultimately conflict.

3. e extent to which we depend upon others to complete our work is a third contributing factor. Certainly conflict would be rare if your task was simply to copy a report on your own copy machine and then file it. However, if you are being pressured to run a report for the records department and must wait for your turn to use the company copier while the person in front of you spends more time talking than copying, frustration could mount and conflict may follow.

4. Lack of resources is another source of conflict. Whether it’s people, time, money, or things, when we do not have what we need to meet current job demands, frustration begins to mount. Ask yourself what happened the last time you were unable to gain access to something you needed at work. Perhaps you lost patience.

5. e power distribution at work can be a fih source of conflict. We all have known people who seem to wield their power inappropriately. Individuals sometimes

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inadvertently step on other people’s toes as they try to complete their own tasks. In addition, there are times when individuals or departments may be viewed as providing a more valuable service to the organization than do others. In such cases, resentment oen arises, laying the foundation for conflict.

6. Changes to company policies and procedures also may cause conflict. Some organizations seem notorious for continually changing their policies. Others seem to have no policies at all, or administer them so infrequently that they seem almost non-existent. Examples include regular office meetings becoming irregular or being told that you are violating a policy that you thought you were abiding by a week ago, such as the way you dress. In any case, the absence of clear policies, or policies that are continu- ally changing, creates an environment of uncertainty and subjective interpretation that makes one feel vulnerable and helpless.

Confronting Difficult Situations with People

It is always best to confront difficulties at the lowest level in the organization. For example, if you have a conflict with your peers, prepare your case and go talk to them one on one to see if you can resolve the conflict.

As a supervisor, if an employee comes to you with concerns about a co-worker, the first question you should ask is, “Have you spoken to this person yourself about the issue?” If the

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answer is no, then ask why not. ey may need some help in knowing how to approach their peer in a manner that does not make the matter worse. Avoidance is a common tactic that many use in the workplace. e thought is that it will work itself out. While this may appear to be the simple solution, it is rarely the correct one.

When a conflict at work requires you to confront an individual, the most effective way is to use what is known as an “assertive” approach. Being assertive does not necessarily mean exerting power and being mean, but it does require effort and practice, and most find it to be extremely helpful in addressing their needs. Here are some points you may find helpful to learn and practice before you have to confront an individual:

1. ink about what it is you want to address. What is really bugging you?

2. Set a time to talk with the individual.

3. Deal with only one topic at a time.

4. Be brief and specific.

5. Do not attack the person. Rather, address a specific behavior that the person can recognize and work toward changing (e.g. “I would like you to arrive to work on time,” rather than, “I would like you to be more conscientious.”)

6. Ask for and listen to their point of view.

In the end, avoiding conflict is easier than confronting it. However, this approach does very little to satisfy your desire

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to make your workplace a productive and pleasant environment. By better understanding how conflict and anger arise and by practicing how to handle it assertively when it does occur, you can make conflict far less intimidating, and it can actually become an aspect of work you can learn to manage rather than let it manage you.

What to do when conflict happens 3

Sometimes the issue evokes strong emotions in you or others. When this happens, the C.A.L.M. model can be a great tool to prepare yourself for confronting another person.

Clarify the Issue Address the Problem Listen to the Other Side Manage Your Way to Resolution

We start with Clarifying the Issue. Ask yourself these questions to get a clear understanding of what the issue really is.

Primary Questions

1. What am I upset about? In specific behavioral terms, what actually happened? Who else is involved? What did they do?

2. What emotions am I feeling: anger, hurt, frustration? Why am I feeling this way?

3. Have I contributed to the problem?

4. Am I just over-reacting? If so, why?

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5. In terms of actions and relationships, what do I desire as an outcome to this conflict? What will successful resolution look like?

6. If I were the other person involved in this situation, how would I want to be approached and dealt with?

Secondary Questions

1. Where may the other person have been coming from? How might they have been motivated by good intentions?

2. Has this happened before? Is this a first-time occurrence?

3. How is this situation affecting me and my work? Are others affected? If so, how?

4. When dealing with this issue, what can I do to increase my chances of getting the results I want? What counter-productive behaviors do I want to avoid?

Address the Problem: How you open the meeting can be critical. Try to meet in a neutral setting and keep it comfortable for all involved. e tone of voice should be non-accusatory and should tell the person you are open for discussion.

e Opening:

I need your help to solve a problem I am facing.

Define the Issue (let them know):

Exactly what happened? How it made you feel.

e negative impacts the situation has caused.

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Other ings to Remember:

Have a walk-in strategy. You may want to practice what you plan to say.

Do not repeat what co-workers have said. is is between the two of you.

Keep the end in mind. e goal is not to win an argument. e goal is to reach a respectful, collaborative result.

Listen to the Other Side: Once you have shared your view, open the discussion and ask for their view. By listening atten- tively, and without judgment, finding a solution may be easier than you think.

1. Give the other person your total attention.

2. Never interrupt.

3. Ask questions for clarification.

4. Paraphrase what you have heard.

5. Show that you are listening; look them in the eye.

6. Use positive body language.

Manage Your Way to Resolution: When others have shared their view, it is now time to work toward a solution. Do not be too eager to tell them what the solution is or it will make them feel like you have not listened to their viewpoint. Use these tips to find a mutual agreement.

1. Gain an agreement that a problem exists.

CONFLICT IN THE WORKPLACE | 65

2. Identify each other’s concerns and needs.

3. Explore win-win solutions.

4. Agree on a course of action.

5. Determine how to handle missteps, should they happen.

6. Close on a positive note.

Managing Team Conflict

It is commonplace for organizations to work in teams. Whether they’re leader-driven or self-directed teams, the hope is that productivity, creativity, and results will be greater in a team environment. While this is a proven approach, any time you bring people together from differing backgrounds and experiences, it is inevitable that conflict will occur.

Many people and organizations view conflict as a negative, something to be avoided. Yet conflict, differences in opinions, and disagreements are a natural result of people working together. Without conflict, teams can become complacent and not perform at optimum levels. The challenge then becomes how the team should prepare itself for this stage of its existence, and how the team leader should facilitate the team through it.

Conflict arises from a clash of perceptions, goals, or values in an arena where people care about the outcome. If not managed correctly, it can totally disrupt the entire group process. However, the old saying, “at which does not kill us will only

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make us stronger” illustrates how successfully managed conflict can benefit the group.

The best approach to preventing unnecessary conflict is by establishing operating standards and objectives that team members can buy into and support. en by enforcing your team rules consistently and fairly, you generally can avoid negative conflict.

e first steps in resolving team conflicts are based on an analysis of the team dynamics. is may sound complex and time consuming, but it is a simple process because it is based on assessing the personality types involved. In contrast to overall personality typing, like Myers Briggs, this focuses on the interaction styles of individuals and how they relate. ese styles are accentuated when there is a conflict or a difference in opinions about goals, directions, and plans.

People can be divided into different categories in many ways. When interacting with others, there are varying degrees of extroversion and introversion, aggressiveness, collaboration and competitiveness, and possessiveness. Some people shrink away from conflict and competitiveness. Some are aggressive and see everything as a clash of wills. Some readily compro- mise by trying to blend their own views and aims with those of others, while others simply accept things as they are and have no opinion either way on a matter. In essence, the de- grees of give and take, and the feelings of togetherness versus individuality typically dominate team dynamics.

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Regardless of which approach is used, teams can surmount many differences and avoid conflict if they define common goals and values in the early stages. Goals may seem self- ev- ident, but the motivations that determine the success or fail- ure of these goals are as unique as the individuals themselves.

e overall goal may be to develop a new product, design a new piece of equipment, or create a new report. But the rele- vance of each task is interpreted differently by each person according to their attitudes and perceptions about it. e team can shape plans, set schedules, enact various ways of doing things, and decide upon how the work is reported and recog- nized so that each person’s individual needs and preferences are met.

For example, if a person is individualistic and competitive, then that person’s work assignments can be structured as standalone sub-projects completed by him or her, requiring minimal input from others. is allows them to participate as individuals while still being recognized as contributing to the overall team effort. For others, team involvement may be important. Individuals desiring this type of work environment simply thrive better when working in a group. Tasks and efforts are shared in circumstances such as these and responsibility then falls on the shoulders of several individuals instead of a sole member.

Regardless of whether dealing with individuals or with groups, the key thing for a leader to remember when interpersonal conflict does arise is that an open line of communication is

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usually the best defense toward finding a workable solution. This means creating a safe-zone where employees can voice their opinions and concerns freely and openly with no fear of retaliation.

Creating a safe-zone requires a leader to assume the role of a facilitator, or that of a neutral party whose responsibility is to demand mutual respect among team members throughout the resolution process. While you can still encourage, support, and clarify, your most important function in this role is to ensure that team rules and codes of conduct are enforced, both fairly and consistently.

Constructive conflicts exist when:

1. People change and grow personally from the conflict.

2. e conflict results in a solution to a problem.

3. Everyone’s involvement increases as a result of the conflict.

4. It builds cohesiveness among the members of the team.

Destructive conflicts exist when:

1. No decision is reached and the problem still exists.

2. It diverts energy away from more value-added activities.

3. It destroys the morale of team members.

4. It polarizes or divides the team.

Role of Team Leader in Managing Conflict

Organizations and relationships typically fail to mature when conflict is le unresolved. Clearly then, the goal of any leader

CONFLICT IN THE WORKPLACE | 69

or manager should be to find a solution equitable to everyone involved. So, leaders must remain impartial and facilitate understanding among the group members.

Preventative Strategies

One of the most effective ways to prevent conflict is establish- ing a good set of ground rules that the team can refer back to for guidance should conflict arise. In addition to outlining processes or behaviors that the group will either allow or prohibit, ground rules also can be used as a way to remove leaders from the role of enforcer.

Another successful technique is for the team to come to agreement on how conflict will be resolved when it occurs. is could include simply reaching a decision by consensus. Most importantly, having a well-defined policy on how conflict will be handled forces the team to focus on behaviors that contribute to it, rather than hamper conflict-resolution efforts.

Training in conflict resolution or communication skills would be invaluable to a team. It would be preferable and most effective if the team could attend this training as a group.

Reactive Strategies

Acting: Exercising an authoritarian approach. Simply tell the group what the resolution will be. is resolves the issue quickly and without discussion. is strategy is best used in emergency situations or when emotions are high and issues will require unpopular decisions. ink through any expected

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negative fallout ahead of time and have a contingency plan in place. Tell people assertively what it is that you are going to do. Do not hesitate or waffle, as this will only add to the confusion.

Adjusting: Splitting differences, exchanging concessions, or giving and taking to reach a middle ground. Good when a quick, temporary solution is needed for a complex issue. It merges different opinions or perspectives quickly. Oen a third party mediator is called in to help determine the requirements of all parties. End the mediation by summarizing, gaining commitments, and setting up future checkpoints in the plan.

Accommodating: Sacrificing self-concerns when yielding to another person. Most valuable when one person is more vested in the outcome, when someone is wrong or has made a bad decision, or simply when they have more to gain at a later date. Using this approach requires someone to admit their mistake and then be willing to work toward resolving the matter. Emotions need to be taken out of the picture and there must be discussion as to why one person’s giving in is the right thing to do. en thank them for their willingness to work things out.

Avoiding: Withdrawing, sidestepping or postponing the issue. Most effective when the issue is of low importance or the conflict is a symptom of bigger issues, when you have no decision-making authority, or when the issue will resolve itself over time. If using the final approach, make sure you explain why nothing is being done or when you do expect to tackle the issue.

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Step-by-Step Process

1. Set expectations. Let all parties know up front that the goal is to resolve the conflict.

2. Make sure all parties want to resolve it.

3. Do not allow for any finger pointing. Let them know there will be no winners or losers. ey are all in this together.

4. Clearly identity the reasons for the conflict.

5. Brainstorm solutions that benefit all parties.

6. Get consensus from all parties on the chosen solution.

7. Implement the consented solution.

8. Monitor and evaluate the success/failure of the solution.

9. If successfully resolved — celebrate! If not, go back to step #7.

10. Follow up and follow through on any additional requirements.

Resolving Conflict Constructively

Not all conflict and tension is bad. When managed construc- tively, disagreements can lead to new ideas, products and best practices, and new ways to do things. Here are seven steps to ensure that conflict is managed constructively:

1. Deflect aggression

• If the other person is emotional or hostile, remain centered and ignore personal attacks. If that does not

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work, simply remove that person or yourself from the situation and go through a cooling-off period.

• If others are in conflict, try to calm them down. Again, if that does not work, remove them from the situation while they cool down.

• Focus on the issues, not the people.

2. Explore the issues

• Probe to understand each person’s point of view.

• Clarify everyone’s assumption.

• Verify facts and, if needed, gather more information.

3. Listen

• Give full attention to the person speaking.

• Paraphrase the other person’s point of view.

• Summarize periodically.

• Be patient, encouraging the other person to continue until they are finished.

• Try to understand how the other person feels.

4. Acknowledge

• Recognize the other person by name.

• Show that you understand and accept the other person’s perspective. You do not have to agree with it, but show your awareness.

• Validate the differences.

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5. Solve the problem

• Define the problem.

• Clarify the issues and goals.

• Find and evaluate alternatives.

• Determine solution criteria.

• Apply the criteria and build consensus.

6. Negotiate

• If problem solving fails, try to negotiate.

• Find acceptable tradeoffs.

• Determine the impact of tradeoffs on each party.

• Compromise. If that is not possible, submit to arbitration.

7. Assert

• When all else fails, be assertive.

• State your position.

• Express your needs.

• If necessary, agree to disagree.

Resolving Disagreements

Disagreements among team members may not develop into major conflict but still can be disruptive. Here are some suggestions for resolving disagreements:

• Know what is at stake for each person. Ensure that the disagreement is over issues that can be discussed rationally.

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• Agree on the issues. Make sure everyone is talking about the same thing.

• Examine assumptions. Other points of view sometimes seem unreasonable because of false assumptions.

• Determine the source of disagreement. Have they interpreted the facts differently? Is there a deeper conflict of values?

• Gather more evidence. Focus on outcomes.

• Have them paraphrase each other’s position. is is an excellent technique. Have each person paraphrase the other’s position before stating their own.

• Suggest that individuals focus on perceptions and share theirs. An opposing position may be less threatening, and certain individuals may find it easier to empathize when it is stated in terms of perceptions: I perceive that …

Encourage mutual acceptance. If all else fails, suggest that they validate each other’s perspective and agree to disagree.

Expect Conflict

You will be exposed to conflict. It is a natural part of life. Whether or not the conflict involves you does not matter. How you handle the conflict will determine your success as a leader.

CONFLICT IN THE WORKPLACE | 75

Complaint Procedures

• Management-designed series of steps for handling employee complaints

• Usually explained in employee handbook or policies • Usually provides for a number of appeals before a final decision.

–––––––––––– 3 Adapted from What To Do When Conflict Happens, Participant Workbook (2007). Carlsbad, CA: CRM Learning, L.P.

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Chapter 4

Recruiting and Selecting Your Team

e hiring process should be set to the same rigorous standards as those used when making any

other strategic decision.

Hiring for Attitude

e hiring patterns you establish today will determine the kind of culture, service standards, and reputation you will have tomorrow.

is is undeniable: You cannot build a great company without great people. How many companies are as rigorous about hiring or as comfortable evaluating job candidates as they are about deciding on an investment proposal or deciding which contractor company to hire? e all-too-common reality is that hiring processes are poorly designed and executed.

Of course, making the commitment to hire great people raises an even more basic question: How do you know them when you see them? In the last few years, a number of companies have asked themselves that question. ey have analyzed what separates their winners from their losers, good hires from bad

hires. ese companies compete in a wide range of industries —from airlines to steel, computers to hotels—but they all arrived at the same answer: What people know is less impor- tant than who they are. Hiring, they believe, is not about finding people with the right experience, but finding people with the right mindset. These companies hire for attitude and train for skill.

The same can be said for promotions and advancement in an organization. All too often, employees are promoted into supervisory positions because they have demonstrated excel- lence in their work or because they have been there for a long time. As supervisors, now they deal with people and their needs instead of simply production needs. Are we really setting these employees up for success if we promote based only on technical competency?

Do not get the wrong idea. Just because we need to look beyond technical skills when hiring does not mean that we need to become amateur psychologists. It simply means that the hiring process should be set to the same rigorous standards as those used when making any other strategic decision.

Hire for Attitude, Train for Skill

Truth #1: Most organizations hire for technical competence and expertise, hoping that the technically gied will bring the right attitude with them.

Truth #2: You will hire people for what they know and what they can do. You most oen will fire people for who they are.

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Truth #3: What people know is less important than who they are. What we know changes very fast in an information-based world. Who we are changes over a long period of time.

Truth #4: Hiring someone with a bad or marginal attitude, but who is technically competent, and then expecting the Training Department to change them is a decision you will pay for over and over again.

Truth #5: When you have fewer people doing more work you cannot afford to make a sloppy hiring decision.

Truth #6: The most admired companies in the world are absolutely rigorous about hiring—it is a strategic priority for them. They know the price they will pay for just filling a position.

e New Model for Smart Hiring

1. What You Know Changes, Who You Are Does Not Popeye (Popeye the “Sailor Man” is an American cartoon fictional character created by Elzie Crisler Segar in 1930s) was right: “I y’am what I y’am.” e most common—and fatal—hiring mistake is to find someone with the right skills but the wrong mindset and hire them on the theory, "We can change ’em.” Forget it. e best predictor of future behavior is past behavior.

2. You Cannot Find What You are Not Looking For ere are several dimensions for success on the job, including practical learning, teamwork, tolerance

RECRUITING AND SELECTING YOUR TEAM | 79

for stress, sales ability, attention to detail, adaptability, flexibility, and motivation, just to name a few. If you are not looking for these traits and skills, you will not find them.

3. You Cannot Hire People Who Do Not Apply Companies that take hiring seriously also take recruiting seriously. Successful companies seldom lack job candidates. e goal is to have the right job candidates, not the most.

Another approach to recruiting builds on the theory that blood is thicker than water. Most companies with advanced hiring systems encourage family members to apply for jobs. e logic is simple. If “who people are” is what matters, who better to hire than people related to your top performers? Another option is to encourage employees to recommend candidates—again our friends, with values similar to ours.

Why Quality Recruiting and Selection Matters

e hiring and selection patterns you establish today will determine the kind of culture, service standards, and reputation you have tomorrow. Will it be a culture you are excited about or one you simply tolerate? Will it be a reputation you are proud of or one for which you are always making excuses?

What you know will change through experience, education, and on-the-job training, but who you are is less likely to

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change as fast. So hiring someone with the hope that you can change their core character and the fundamental values that shape their attitude when they come to work for you is a bad hiring decision. Many marriages fail today for the same reason. We like some things but not everything about our potential spouse, and we hope that when we finally tie the knot we can change them! But we all know how flawed that thinking is (either through our personal experience or by knowing someone who has tried it and failed).

Finally, in a world with limited resources and more work than ever, we cannot afford to make hiring mistakes. There is a finite amount of time in each day. We can either waste part of that time on personnel problems that emanate from bad hiring decisions, or we can get the most out of that time on things that add value for our customers and widen the gap of competitive advantage.

Why is it difficult to hire the best?

Perhaps it is difficult to hire the best because we have not been through the rigorous process of defining what the best looks like. Hiring people with world-class attitudes starts with identifying the people in your own organization who already have the kind of attributes you want. Find the superstars in your company. Ask their customers, employees, peers, and supervisors what makes them so effective, so easy to work with, and so competent. en build a profile of the common denominators that make each superstar successful and hire new people based on those attitudinal profiles.

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Hiring is a pay-me-now or pay-me-later endeavor. If you invest the time up front to critically think through what attitudes, characteristics and values you want, and then hire accordingly, the rewards can be invaluable. If, on the other hand, you are lazy or impatient, the negative consequences can be disastrous. We all know through experience that attitudes are contagious. As you interview people for future positions, ask yourself, “Is theirs worth catching?”

While you are at it, why not ask yourself the same question, “Is my attitude worth catching?” As a leader, you are an ambassador for your organization. You have the power to set the tone for your organization’s success in recruiting, screen- ing, and hiring world-class people with world-class attitudes. What kind of legacy are you building?

Developing a Recruiting and Selection Strategy

In order to be successful, organizations must have the ability to locate, identify, and attract qualified candidates. Recruiting involves much more than placing an employment ad in the paper. An effective recruitment program serves as a foundation for meeting current and future staffing requirements. Incorpo- rating a recruiting strategy that is both systematic and creative provides the innovation and cost effectiveness needed to remain competitive in any business environment.

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e recruiting process involves six key steps:

1. Establish the organization’s recruiting objectives

2. Identify the position requirements and opportunities

3. Evaluate the recruiting climate and response

4. Determine appropriate sources

5. Implement the recruiting campaign

6. Monitor the results

Your Mission, Vision, and Values

You should incorporate your organization’s mission, vision, and values into the selection process. This can be done by including questions during the interview that determine if the candidate is the right person for the job and would be a good fit for your company.

Such questions might include:

• How would you best contribute to our company’s mission of …?

• Tell us about a time when you specifically had to choose the company’s interests over those of your own.

• One of our key values is … what skills or talents do you have that can help us with supporting this value?

e point here is that the person you hire should be able to support your mission, vision, and values. Otherwise, the person will not be a good fit for your company.

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Additionally, you should consider incorporating your values into your performance appraisal process and then rating employees on their performance relative to supporting those values.

Determining Recruiting or Selection Objectives

To determine specific recruiting objectives, start by linking to the organization’s business plan along with evaluating past staffing patterns, current and future hiring needs, and budget restrictions. To arrive at these objectives, consider the following:

Organization’s Business Plan What is the organization’s plan and focus in the next few years? What kind of employees are needed to meet the organization’s needs? If you are selecting team members from an existing pool of employees, what are the team’s objectives and what skills are needed to successfully accomplish those objectives?

Long-Term vs. Short-Term Employment Strategic Plan What are the long-term and short-term needs? Considerations include property acquisitions, downsizing, and expansion.

Position and Team Requirements Position requirements would entail assessing the essential duties and responsibilities of the job, the type and degree of expertise needed, the kind of decision making required, and the amount of time spent performing each function. Cultural fit factors look at how work is accomplished in an organization. For example, the degree of formality and use of set procedures, the pace and amount of change, and the extent of team versus individual work focus are just a few.

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Look for members who focus on logic and data as well as those who look at the impact

decisions will have on people.

e same considerations should be used when selecting team members. In addition, consider the overall skills and abilities of each team member. For a team to be well rounded and perform at its best, look for the strengths each member brings to the table and build upon them. For example, select members who are detail-oriented as well as those who are task-driven.

Look for members who focus on logic and data as well as those who look at the impact decisions will have on people. Good communication, strong listening skills, the ability to work through conflicting points of view, and adaptability are highly prized in all members of the team.

Bad hiring selections oen end up costing organizations a great deal of time and money, and are usually the result of poorly defined or inadequately communicated job requirements. Unrealistic requirements limit the available candidate pool and restrict recruiting efforts. In addition, the amount of training the company will provide for the position is important in deter- mining the level of experience and job knowledge needed for an employee new to the job as opposed to employees who have been in the job for a period of time.

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Reviewing the Resume and Job Application

Reviewing resumes is a critical part of the overall hiring process and is an area where many companies fail to devote enough time. As a result, they either end up with a poor choice or miss a shooting star opportunity.

Resume screening is the process of comparing one candidate’s qualifications to another’s or comparing a candidate’s skills and abilities to the job requirements. Organizations must allocate both time and resources to this. In addition, in this day of electronic applications, resume screening has taken on several new dimensions.

Before the age of electronics, resume screening could be as simple as looking at the design of the document, the quality of the paper used for printing or the size of the envelope it was mailed in. While still useful for mailed resumes, electronic applications have become more of the norm, and with that comes a new set of screening requirements and challenges.

However, there is still one thing that never goes out of style regardless of whether submitted by pen on paper or transmit- ted through electronic gadgetry, and that is proper spelling and grammar. Potential candidates who fail to give adequate attention to details such as these do not warrant the time and effort involved in reviewing their application.

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Steps In Resume Review

1. Resumes should include a cover letter. Review the cover thoroughly before proceeding to the resume. e cover letter tells you a lot about a potential candidate, including why they want to come to work for you, their goals and aspirations, and what they expect from you, if hired. If the resume you are reviewing has no cover letter, it should be a red flag that the applicant made little effort. Depending on the nature of the position you are looking to fill, you will need to decide whether or not to continue reviewing the resume.

2. Scan the resume to obtain an overall impression of the applicant. Look especially for a flawless presentation, correct spelling and grammar, and their attention to detail. Paper resumes must pass the feel test.

3. In the first skim, look for the easy-to-find qualifications. If you are requiring a college degree and they do not have one, reject the resume or place it in your maybe-meets- qualifications pile or electronic folder.

4. Read the section in the cover letter or resume where the candidate tells you what they are looking for in a job. If your job posting stated specific qualifications and the potential candidate stated they are looking for a “challenging environment,” this, again, is a red flag because it shows little effort. is could be an indicator of a poor work ethic.

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5. Look at the applicant’s list of qualifications and experiences to see if they align with the job requirements. Again, if the applicant has taken the time to customize their summary to your needs, you can decide whether or not they have the aptitude and skills you seek.

6. Next, take a look at where the applicant worked in the past. Look for accomplishments and any contributions made while working for previous or current employers. Be aware of anything that specifically relates to the job requirements of the position you are looking to fill. Look for key words that can tie their past experiences to your current needs. Finally, look for any red flag items such as:

• Employment gaps

• Evidence of decreasing responsibility

• Evidence of a career that has reached a plateau or gone backwards

• Short-term employment at several jobs

• Multiple shis in career path

A word of caution here. As you review, be aware of generational differences. Meaning the values and work ethics attributed to the different generations. A baby boomer may see someone who frequently changes jobs as a job hopper or someone not able to hold a job. On the other hand, a Gen Y’er may see the same person as someone expanding their horizons or making themselves more marketable. Be aware of these differences and do not stereotype an applicant as you review the resume.

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7. If in doubt, check it out. Applicants always should include a list of references with their resume. Do not be afraid to call references and ask if there are things about the candi date you should know more about.

8. Finally, schedule interviews with those candidates who have passed your initial screening process.

Remember, the more you review resumes, the better your resume review will become. With practice, your resume review should yield great candidates for you to consider for employment.

In closing, please review the following Checklist for Reviewing Resumes or Application Forms.

Checklist for Reviewing Resumes or Application Forms

Sort applicants by the job for which they are applying. Save miscellaneous applications for last.

• Review the job description(s) for the position(s) you are attempting to fill. Note minimum requirements needed and refer to them oen as you review resumes/applications.

• Ignore the applicant’s name, address or personal information to limit subconscious biases.

• Attempt to ignore superficial issues such as style and typographical areas in favor of content unless such issues are directly related to the position for which

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they are applying. Such scrutiny may unintentionally rule out members of protected classes.

• Check work experience for applicability to the position for which they are applying, length of time they have worked in similar areas, promotions or awards received, and reasons for leaving.

• Note gaps in employment but do not assume they were caused by negative reasons.

• Check educational background for qualifications necessary to have successful job performance.

• Note special skills (i.e. computer soware, office equipment).

• Note on a separate piece of paper any pertinent questions that arise when reviewing the resume/ application and ask those during your initial contact with the prospect.

• Divide resumes into 3 groups—one for those that closely match job requirements and for which a preliminary contact is appropriate, one for those who meet some requirements and may be considered at some point, and one for those who do not meet the requirements at all.

• If necessary, screen the top group again to further narrow down the candidates. On average, about 10 resumes per open position should be sufficient.

During your initial contact with them, briefly describe the position, location, hours and salary range (if appropriate) and

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ask if the candidate is still interested in being considered. If so, this is the time to ask for clarification on any items you had questions about when reviewing their resume.

Hire the Most Qualified Applicant Using a Fair and Non-discriminatory Process

• Review the selection process to ensure that you treat each applicant fairly and consistently.

• Review the interview format and questions for possible bias. Consult with your HR group as well as others trained in the hiring process. en review the process with your recruiting team to ensure there are no questions that are biased and prejudicial. Discuss the impact of common biases such as stereotyping, unsubstantiated first impressions that may influence a decision, and assessments based on differing comfort levels with them. Reaffirm the fact that decisions must be made on facts, not on perceptions.

• Ensure that reasonable accommodations are made for the applicants, such as ensuring that handicapped access is available for an applicant in a wheelchair.

• If using a group interview process, create a diverse selection panel.

• Assess all candidates using the same selection criteria.

• Interview as many applicants as possible to increase the pool from which you will have to choose. Use competency-based interviewing techniques.

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• Eliminate interview questions that are not job related.

• Keep written records of all applicants interviewed and be certain that the information saved is relevant to the applicant’s ability to perform the required duties and are not simply personal opinions.

• Follow up with references aer the interview and ask job-related questions about the applicant’s knowledge, skills, and ability to do the job. Document questions and answers.

• Be consistent with reference checks. Weigh informa- tion received consistently for all applicants.

• Give all applicants an opportunity to address any negative feedback from reference checks.

• Document the selection process fully. Retain all records: interview questions, reference check questions and notes, and the completed interview assessment forms.

Background Checks and Reference Checks

Employers can check for criminal records when conducting employment background checks, but state laws limit the extent to which employers can use these when making hiring decisions. Examples of such decisions include the refusal to hire or promote based solely on their criminal record.

Restrictions concerning the use of criminal records are imposed by state and federal laws and by guidelines established by state

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government agencies and civil rights organizations. Restrictions vary by state. But, overall:

• Employers usually can not disqualify job candidates solely on the grounds that they have criminal records.

• Employers typically may not ask about or consider a juvenile criminal record to make job or other employment-related decisions.

• Employers typically have the right to ask about and conduct an adult criminal record search to make job or other employment decisions.

• Employment decisions about whether or not to hire should be limited to convictions only. Just because an applicant may be charged with a felony does not make them automatically guilty.

• Employers must show that an applicant’s conviction would have an impact on their suitability to fill a position before the employer can make a hiring decision based solely on the conviction. An applicant with a criminal history of child abuse would not be a good fit for a job in a day-care center.

Again, restrictions vary by state. Some are very rigid in what they allow and do not allow, while others may have no restrictions. Regardless, the United States Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) has imposed specific employment discrimination laws which are very broad in nature and sometimes loosely defined.

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For example, if an employer does not hire an applicant because of the specifics of their criminal record, the EEOC still could say that employment discrimination has occurred if that applicant were a member of an ethnic group. It is impor- tant to remember that you must have a justifiable business reason to deny employment if criminal background is involved. If you have any questions about this, or just are not sure, contact your local EEOC field office for more information.

A note of importance: Some states require certain employers to conduct criminal record checks for specific convictions before hiring employees. Employers required to conduct criminal record checks typically are engaged in businesses that involve so-called vulnerable individuals such as children and elderly adults. Examples include child care, education, and home health care.

Pre-Employment Inquiries

U.S. federal law requires employers to conduct the applicant screening and hiring process in a nondiscriminatory manner. Pre-employment inquiries (on application forms, by telephone, in interviews) can be considered illegal if they screen out women, minorities or other protected groups. As a result, the EEOC cautions that inquiries concerning an applicant’s race, color, religion, or national origin may be regarded as discriminatory.

Exceptions: Pre-employment inquiries are permissible if required by local, state, or federal law. ey are also allowed when religion and national origins are bona fide occupational

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qualifications (BFOQs), or where the employer can prove that the inquiry is justified by business necessity and is job-related.

Reference Checks

In addition to contacting former employers and personal references, many organizations expand the selection process to include checks for driving records, education, and other professional credentials and credit history. In general, the following rules apply:

• Check federal, state and local laws and regulations before proceeding.

• Be certain there is a job- or business-related reason for the selection processes utilized (i.e., motor vehicle checks for drivers, credit checks for bank tellers.)

• Explain the procedures on the application form, in the interview, or wherever appropriate.

• Have the applicant sign an authorization form for each of the types of information to be checked. Legal counsel can assist with proper wording.

• ere are numerous firms that provide assistance with background checks. Be certain they are reputable and comply with all federal, state and local laws.

• Maintain confidentiality.

Other Legal Considerations

Every country has employment laws that govern the do’s and don’ts of recruiting and interviewing. Although we have

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highlighted some areas that all leaders should be aware of, this is not a complete list of legal considerations. A good Human Resources person or employment attorney can be a huge asset to ensure your processes and procedures keep you out of court.

Developing the Interview and Questions

Respect the Candidate

Valuing candidate’s time can be one of the most important drivers in the interview process.

1. e interview schedule should meet candidate and interview team needs to the extent possible.

2. Try to minimize follow-up interviews for candidates as much as possible (particularly out-of-town applicants). Web-based preliminary interviews are particularly helpful and convenient for out-of-town candidates.

3. Make sure that every member of your interview team starts and ends the interview on time. Schedule a 15-minute buffer between interviews in the event one of them runs long or a candidate shows up late.

4. Make sure you schedule a lunch break for your interview team so they can relax and re-energize. If possible, have the team members eat together so they can discuss the events of the morning.

5. Keep the number of interviews manageable.

6. Ensure all interviewers have a copy of the candidate’s resume in advance.

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7. Appoint an individual to be the point person for the candidate.

8. Provide the candidate with a follow-up timeline, or what will happen next.

We want candidates to feel their time has been well-spent. When the candidate leaves, they should have clear expectations about the next step and a positive impression of the organization.

Once interviews have been completed, the interview team should meet to discuss the candidates and make a selection decision. is should be done as soon as the interview team is able.

If the decision is to extend an offer, work with appropriate staff to develop the offer and convey it to the candidate.

If you’re not going to hire a candidate, tell them. Be sure to communicate in a timely fashion.

If the decision is to hold onto the candidate (not offer but not reject), someone on the interview team should contact them to let them know they are a viable candidate and what to expect next. Sometimes you may hold a candidate until your top one accepts the job offer or until additional candidates have been interviewed.

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Core Competencies: Behavioral Definitions

Adaptability: • Seek, understand, and accept change.

• Treat change and new situations as opportunities for learning or growing.

• Focus on the beneficial aspects of change.

• Speak positively about the change to others.

• Modify behavior to deal effectively with changes in the work environment.

• Try new approaches for new situations.

Teamwork: • Value, appreciate, and include others.

• Place team or organizational goals ahead of personal ones.

• Help others achieve mutual goals.

• Exchange ideas freely and then build on them.

• Get team consensus on ideas and then take action on them.

Integrity: • Be honest and forthright.

• Present information accurately and completely.

• Keep commitments.

• Keep confidences.

• Be consistent with words and actions.

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• Represent organizational strengths and abilities fairly and equitably.

Initiative: • Take thoughtful, yet timely action when confronted with a problem or difficult situation.

• Implement new ideas or solutions without being prompted.

• Be an overachiever. Go above and beyond basic job requirements in order to achieve goals.

• Seek opportunities to improve efficiencies and reduce costs.

Innovation: • Identify alternate ways to view or define problems.

• Use as many diverse sources for ideas and inspiration as you can find.

• Brainstorm ideas.

• Consider multiple solutions.

• Target areas for innovation.

Functional Competencies: Behavioral Definitions

Accounting and Finance: • Prepare cost projections for new and existing products and submit them in a monthly report to your manager.

• Ensure inventory accounts are properly funded on a monthly basis.

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Administrative: • Prepare and/or coordinate such things as travel arrangements, presentations, meetings, and other functions as requested by manager.

• Enter all necessary data into the books, and then review and reconcile the books on a monthly basis to ensure that all invoices are submitted and/or paid prior to due dates.

Engineering: • Design, write, and execute standard protocols.

• Support manufacturing through continuous process/ product improvement efforts.

Human Resources: • Analyze data in regards to turnover, cost per hire, compensation, benefits, and affirmative action relative to industry trends. Report findings to management on a monthly basis.

• Monitor the effectiveness of all policies and procedures to ensure compliance. Support and broaden the diver- sity of your workforce through both your hiring and your promotion efforts.

Information Technology: • Prioritize and manage Information System projects to assure they are on time and on budget. If the project involves new hardware or soware, ask for feedback from users to ensure everything is running as

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expected and they are properly trained on the use of the new products.

• Monitor network performance for problems on a daily basis.

Warehouse Operations: • Check incoming procurements against requisitions, shipping memos, packing slips, invoices, and/or freight bills to assure that all orders are received in full and arrived in good condition. Also, make sure that all outgoing sales and orders are packaged and shipped in a timely manner. If inconsistencies are found in either incoming or outgoing products, report them to management on the shi on which they were found.

• Read and understand all rules and regulations pertaining to warehouse management, especially those related to the occupational safety and health hazard-related issues.

Production: • Check product/production outputs for accuracy, quality, and quantity on a daily, sometimes even an hourly basis. If there are negative variances, try to determine the cause.

• Ensure that all equipment is properly set up and in safe working condition on a shi-by-shi basis. Report any deficiencies immediately.

• Provide operator training on all equipment and then monitor performance to ensure proficiency and abilities.

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Quality/Regulatory Affairs: • Periodically conduct quality assurance checks. is includes checking incoming materials, work in progress, and finished goods. Ensure that all work being done is according to well defined criteria and follows rules and regulations defined by regulatory agencies.

• Analyze all data received and communicate results to your management team. Look for any gaps in expected outcomes. en create and assign action plans to ensure corrections are made.

Research and Development: • Develop tactics and strategies that encourage the development and launch of new products and services. Conduct marketing surveys to find what customers want and need. Share success stories at monthly department meetings.

Sales and Marketing: • Develop and implement strategies and tactical plans to achieve current and long-range sales goals for assigned products. Communicate these to management on a quarterly basis.

• Modify proposals or plans to deal with customers’ concerns and incorporate customers’ suggestions on an ongoing basis.

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Scientific/Medical: • Coordinate input, collaboration, and consultation for the design of clinical protocols and submissions to ensure the proper product indications are supported. Ensure medical and scientific protocol validity.

• Generate sound scientific data by identifying and solving problems, planning and taking the lead on assigned development projects, writing and reviewing scientific reports, and performing laboratory activities.

Leadership Competencies: Behavioral Definitions

Build Our Organization and Inspire Our People: • Determine and acquire, or develop, the knowledge, skills, and abilities needed to achieve the organization’s goals.

• Staff the organization from various disciplines, backgrounds, and cultures to promote and capitalize on diversity and to ensure complementary talents and skills.

• Create a committed and productive organization that acts with integrity.

• Establish clear expectations and provide timely, accurate feedback, both positive and negative. Take appropriate follow-up action when needed.

• Recognize, reward, and promote people based on their performance, achievements, and development of competencies.

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• Serve as a role model.

Set Vision and Strategy:

• Understand trends, their implications, and opportunities in the global environment.

• Maintain a strong customer focus.

• Identify and capitalize upon opportunities to create value from cross-division capabilities.

• Communicate the business vision and strategies to all in the organization.

• Look to the future using the global marketplace, technology, and business knowledge to identify emerging opportunities, and then seize them.

• Translate the business vision and broad strategies into concrete, actionable strategic plans and goals, prioritizing goals, projects, and plans appropriately.

Encourage Open Exchange of Ideas and Knowledge: • Foster a work environment that encourages open communication and knowledge sharing, leveraging that sharing to drive continuous improvement and positive outcomes.

• Encourage the expression of opposing and differing points of view.

• Practice effective listening skills.

• Listen and think about diverse or differing ideas before responding.

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• Proactively seek feedback and demonstrate a willingness to learn and change.

• Give honest, timely feedback, both positive and critical, to staff as well as to higher-level management.

Know the Business: • Continuously scan the environment, identifying key issues, trends, relationships, and cause/effect as they affect the business.

• Learn from and build on business experience to ensure success.

• Demonstrate a strong personal capability for learning new aspects of the business and encourage others to do the same.

Drive for Results: • Collaboratively set realistic, challenging, measurable goals and timetables.

• Set short-term objectives that drive longer-term goals or strategies.

• Support staff with necessary resources to achieve goals.

• Hold yourself and others accountable for delivering high-quality results.

• Regularly evaluate yourself and your team on goal attainment, the process used to achieve goals and competitive benchmarks.

• Be tenacious.

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Make the Difficult Decisions:

• Demonstrate the willingness to make and accept unpopular decisions or take opposing positions.

• Challenge the status quo on traditional ways of doing things.

• Recognize signs of crisis situations and take corrective action at the earliest indication of trouble.

• Recognize errors and make corrections as necessary.

• Make the difficult decisions when needed.

General Guidelines for Choosing Questions

Using behavior-based questions is an effective way to learn how the candidate has responded in the past. Since past behav- ior is the best predictor of future behavior, we highly suggest using behavior-based questions. Although situational questions can be useful, candidates can oen give you a textbook answer without ever having been in the situation themselves.

A behavior based question is an open-ended one that causes the candidate to discuss how they have responded to a situa- tion in the past. Each question asks the candidate to evaluate:

1. A positive situation/task

2. A negative situation/task

3. A situation/task with a subordinate, co-worker, supervisor or customer.

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Choose questions for each competency that you are seeking for a particular position. Make sure you address each type of question for each competency. By looking at questions from various perspectives, you will gain further insight into personality factors as revealed through behaviors.

How to Create Your Own Behavior-Based Interview Question

Sometimes, particularly with functional competencies, you will need to create your own behavior-based questions. Following the steps below, you will be able to create legal and behaviorally orientated questions in no time.

Remember, the point of the question is to use the past to help predict the future.

1. Begin by identifying the position’s behavior and related competency.

2. A good way to start a question is with one of the following phrases “Describe a time, situation, action …” “Tell me about …” “Give an example of …” or “Provide an example of a situation when …”

3. When choosing your words, use terminology specific to the position.

4. Get to the heart of the matter quickly — questions should be no more than one to two sentences.

5. Avoid creating a scenario for the candidate. Words that indicate you are doing this include “like,” “for example,” and “for instance.”

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6. Review your questions to ensure that they are legal.

7. Remember, if it is not job-related, it is not relevant.

8. Human Resources should review any questions you create.

Beyond the First Behavioral Question

A good behavioral-based question will accomplish two things: 1) get the candidate talking and 2) give you an oppor- tunity to see how the candidate acted or reacted. Your job is not done aer you ask the first question, though. Sometimes you will need more information. Remember that all behav- ior- based interview questions seek a STAR within the answer. S/T is the situation/task; A is the action the candidate took in that instance; R is the result. When using the STAR method, ask questions starting with “How,” “What,” “When,” “Where,” and “Why.”

Do not hesitate to ask for the outcome in both subjective and objective forms. If the candidate cannot think of a time they experienced a situation or task, do not let them speculate on how they may have responded. Suggest a scenario or two to jog their memory. If they still cannot think of a situation, move on to the next question. is tells you something about them that is helpful.

Core Competencies and Corresponding Questions

Listed below are the core competencies we described earlier, along with some behavior based questions/situations that can be used as examples to help you build your own questions.

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Adaptability: • Describe a time when you came up with a new process while in your position.

• Describe a time when you had to change your thinking when you really did not want to or did not agree with what was being proposed.

Teamwork: • Give an example of a time when you encouraged a more reserved member of the team to contribute to the sharing of ideas.

• Give an example of a time when you put your personal interests aside in order to recognize the achievement of a team member or the organization.

• Tell about a time when you supported an organization’s decisions even though you felt as though there were better alternatives.

Integrity: • Tell about a time when you were asked to do something that you believed was not right.

• Describe a time when you were asked to provide a customer with a product or service that was not truly needed.

• Describe a time when you were given full credit for a job when there were actually others who had contributed significantly to the outcomes.

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Initiative: • Explain the manner in which you handled a difficult situation with a customer.

• Describe a time when you identified a small problem before it became a big problem.

• Give an example of a new idea you came up with and presented without the prompting of your supervisor.

Innovation: • Describe a time when you came up with a new way of looking at things.

• Give one or two examples of changes you have made to the way things used to be done prior to your moving into your current position.

• Give an example of an unusual place you found information that has helped you on the job.

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Chapter 5

Leadership Communications

Effective communication has occurred only when the receiver understands the message.

Communications

Effective communication is ESSENTIAL to being successful in the workplace. e biggest cause of workplace problems is poor communications. e key to the communication process is to be understood.

Functions of Communication

1. Convey ideas, concepts, plans, procedures, work requirements, etc.

2. Motivate, inspire, and direct performance in others.

3. Provide a release for concerns, problems, issues, and workplace conflict.

4. Provide information needed to make informed decisions.

Communication Goals

e aim of communication is the transference and under- standing of information between two or more people.

Communication always must be between two or more people. ere is always a sender and a receiver. You participate in both roles, and your role will change alternatively and frequently throughout the conversation.

Effective communication has occurred only when the receiver understands the message. Feedback is critical to ensuring that the message has been accurately received and understood.

Six Barriers to Effective Communication

1. Filtering: A sender’s manipulation of information so that it will be seen more favorably by the receiver.

2. Selective Perception: People selectively interpret what they see on the basis of their interests, background, experience, and attitudes.

3. Information Overload: A condition in which information inflow exceeds an individual’s processing capacity.

4. Emotions: How a receiver feels at the time a message is received will influence how the message is interpreted.

5. Language: Words have different meanings to different people.

6. Communication Apprehension: Undue tension and anxiety about oral communication, written communication, or both.

A Good Communicator:

• Seeks out and is receptive to input from others.

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• Uses a variety of questioning techniques to gain insight and participation into conversation.

• Practices active listening.

• Channels information upward, downward, and laterally.

• Coordinates with all other leaders, peers, superiors, and subordinates.

• Consistently reviews daily operations and provides feedback and/or instructions.

• Uses a variety of communication vehicles and chooses the most appropriate vehicle(s) and/or style(s) for a given situation.

• Effectively presents ideas to work group members.

• Explains the “why” behind work assignments and activities/policies that impact the work group or individual employees.

• Identifies and resolves communication problems between group members, including when it involves them.

Active Listening

Active listening is a communication technique that reduces defensiveness and loss of self-esteem, and acts to defuse an emotional exchange. e term “active listening” means the ability to pick up, define, and respond accurately to the feel- ings expressed by the other person. When active listening is employed, people perceive that they are being understood.

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When you fail to listen well, you risk:

• Misreading people’s intentions • Misinterpreting ideas • Confusing the issue • Misjudging people’s qualifications • Misunderstanding instructions • Jumping to the wrong conclusions • Antagonizing people

e Four Steps of Active Listening

1. Listen: To feelings as well as to words, emotions, and implications. Focus on the speaker. Look at them. Use verbal and nonverbal encouraging signs to let them know you are listening to them. Do not plan what to say or get distracted while listening.

2. Question: Demonstrates you are listening. Use to gather information and to obtain clarification. Ask open-ended questions such as “Tell me more,” “How did you feel?” or “en what happened?”

3. Reflect-Paraphrase: In your own words, reflect what is said and the feelings expressed, reframe to capture the essence of the communication, remove negative framing, and move toward problem solving.

4. Agree: Get speaker’s consent to your reframing. is lets the speaker know they have been heard. Let them know that a solution is near!

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Climbing the LADDER—to better listening

LOOK at the speaker — Meanings are not in the words, but in the people.

ASK questions — e quickest way to become a listener.

DO NOT interrupt — It is just as rude to step on people’s ideas as it is to step on their toes.

DO NOT change the subject — Listening means wanting to hear.

EMOTIONS — Leaders should be aware of their own emotions, and be aware of the emotional undercur- rents in the environment. Emotions create a storm and others will back away.

RESPONSIVE listening — When people feel that their leader no longer listens or responds, they will go somewhere else.

Giving and Receiving Feedback

10 Common Performance Feedback Mistakes

1. Speaking out only when things are wrong. “Praise to a human being represents what sunlight, water and soil are to a plant — the climate in which one grows best.” — Earl Nightingale

2. ”Drive-by” praise without specifics or an honest underpinning. — “Great job!”

3. Waiting until performance or behavior is substantially below expectations before acting on it.

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4. Giving positive or negative feedback long aer the event has occurred.

5. Not taking responsibility for your thoughts, feelings, actions, and reactions. “is comes straight from the boss.”

6. Giving feedback through email messages, notes, or over the telephone.

7. Giving negative feedback in public.

8. Criticizing performance without giving suggestions for improvement.

9. No follow-up aerwards.

10. Not having regularly scheduled performance review meetings.

Four Tips for Effective Performance Feedback

1. Be proactive. Nip issues in the bud and avoid the messy interpersonal tangles that result from neglected communication. Meet with employees on a monthly or quarterly basis instead of annually. is lets them know that they are important to you and you care about their success.

2. Be specific. It is never easy to provide negative feedback regarding someone’s work, but as a leader you cannot avoid it. Be as clear as possible when providing feedback (both positive and negative). Give specific examples that illustrate your points. For example, instead of saying, “Your attitude is bad” or “at did not work,” you might say something like, “When you miss deadlines, then

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cross your arms and look away when I discuss it with you, it gives me the impression that you do not care about the quality of your work. I’d like to believe this isn’t true. Can you help me explain this better?”

3. Develop a progress plan. Tell them what specifically needs to change and when that change needs to occur. Schedule follow-ups to check on progress and then make sure you follow up as scheduled.

4. Link employee performance to organizational goals. Reinforce the value of your employees’ contributions by giving specific examples of how their work and positive behaviors serve the organization and its customers.

Receiving Feedback

Accept it in the spirit it is given. Do not become defensive or argue with the person. Do not try to justify your position. Just listen. Ask questions for clarification. If you think the person is right, say so and thank them. If not, just thank them.

Job Performance Feedback: 7 Tips for Receiving Feedback Gracefully

1. Welcome Constructive Feedback. Your powers of self- perception go only so far. People around you notice things, both good and bad, which you may or may not see and you might learn from their input. ere is a virtuous circle of feedback whereby the more you seek it, the less you can hide bad behavior. EBay seller feedback is an excellent example of a transparent feedback process that encourages positive behaviors.

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2. Do Not Justify Your Position. Telling the person why their feedback is wrong will not work. Arguing, justifying your position, or denying anything is wrong, are all powerful negative emotions that make conversations more challenging than they need to be. e results from this type of behavior are usually hurt feelings, and intense anger and distrust.

3. Do Accept Feedback At Face Value. Although the feedback might feel like a personal insult against you as a person, keep things in perspective. e feedback is usually about something specific that occurred which, now that you know about it, you can correct.

4. Do Not Ruminate on Feedback. Only cows need to ruminate before they digest. Chewing on, or thinking over and over again about feedback that is less than glowing will do nothing more than increase your feelings of resentment over receiving it. Avoid the temptation to re-enact the conversation with a friend as this only makes you feel ten times worse. Do talk about it with someone else, but make sure you are emotionally detached first.

5. Do Evaluate Feedback Before Responding. Feedback oen tells you more about the person saying it than it does about you. For example, a person who says you never praise their work might have difficulty evaluating their work themselves. Teaching this person to do a good self-evaluation of their own performance might be a better approach than you trying to praise them over and

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over again. In the long run, you will be doing them a favor by giving them a much needed boost to their self-esteem.

6. Do Not row Your Toys from the Pushchair. Sulking, stonewalling or withdrawing from the person giving the feedback is childish. If need be, give yourself some space from the person, allowing yourself time to calm down and deal with the feedback and person as a rational adult.

7. Do Make a Choice on How to Use the Feedback. Feedback can be a gi allowing you to grow and develop as a person in a job or in a relationship. On the other hand, some feedback is downright useless and best ignored. It is ultimately your choice how to act, or not, upon feedback received. For example, let’s assume you receive internal customer feedback saying you do not do “x” and they think you should. You actually have spent time consid- ering “x” and have determined that it is simply not cost-effective. ank them for the feedback, letting them know the history of what you have done and then ask how else you could meet their needs. Chances are they will be satisfied with your explanation and not notice that you did not respond directly to their feedback.

Communicating Non-Defensively 4

We are all naturally defensive to some degree, and it is no more apparent than in our communications with others.

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What can lead us and others we work with towards defensive communications?

How do defensive communications interfere with problem solving and dealing with performance issues?

If we learn how to communicate non-defensively and teach others to do the same, we can:

• Reduce interpersonal conflict.

• Help people communicate more openly and honestly.

Five Skills to Communicating Non-Defensively:

1. Disengage

• Back off from the situation.

• Take some time to think through the problem.

• Re-examine from a more objective viewpoint.

• Realize that it is probably not a personal attack.

2. Empathize

• Imagine yourself in the other person’s position.

• Consider other viewpoints. • Let the other person know that you understand their perspective.

3. Inquire

• Ask questions that allow you to learn more about the problem.

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• Get to the specifics of the issue.

• Encourage both sides to focus on a solution, not the defensive problem.

• Listen to all sides—use your active listening skills.

4. Disclose

• Reveal your own needs and concerns in a

non-defensive manner.

• Be honest and direct.

• Be attentive, but not overly apologetic.

• Make “I” statements.

5. Depersonalize

• Discuss the issue objectively.

• See your work as what you do, not who you are.

• As you change your behavior towards others,

you shape their response to you.

Why Might We Communicate Defensively?

• Low self-esteem—fear of being perceived as incompetent or fear of being criticized.

• Take the comments personally—assume the attack is personal rather than issue-based.

How Do People Respond to Defensive Communications?

• We shut down—fight back with passive aggression.

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• We respond defensively, which creates a defensive chain and the cycle continues.

• e defensive chain can ripple out to others in the organization.

–––––––––––– 4 Adapted from Communicating Non-Defensively, revised edition (1994). Carlsbad, CA: CRM Learning, L.P.

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Chapter 6

Project Management Leadership

Project-management tools help you prioritize and manage your work efforts.

Project Planning

Basic Project Planning and Management Steps

1. Analyze the project.

• Define the project • List Project Objective Statement • Should include criteria for project • Major deliverables for project • List the activities—develop Work Breakdown Structure • Consider your workforce/resources • Identify the time required for the activities

2. Determine a sequence for the project based on the activities involved, the workforce that will do the work, and the time required for the activities.

• Consider sequence-dependent activities (those tasks that must be done in sequence)

• Consider sequence-independent activities (tasks that can be done in parallel)

3. Estimate resources needed for the project.

• Consider your own internal resources • Obtain outside resources as required • Person doing the work must be the person estimating resources • Cannot estimate if you have no knowledge of how to do the job • Use efficiency factor: six work hours in an eight-hour day

4. Build a project management chart.

• PERT or Gantt Chart or Critical Path Method • Synchronization Matrix • Important to determine critical path • Use Forward Pass/Backward Pass methods

5. Communicate the plan.

• Your team, supervisor, and peers who also may be involved • Refine the plan as needed based on input • Use Network Communication Circle—free and open communications

6. Initiate the project.

• Organize the team • Provide leadership for the project

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7. Monitor progress.

• Refine the plan and adjust as needed based on the evolving situation

• Communicate updates as required to those who need to know

• Use effective decision making during the project

• When conflict arises, remember smoothing, avoiding, forcing, compromising, collaboration response styles

¤ Smoothing — focusing on the other person’s view while minimizing real differences; used when things get emotional or when faced with time constraints.

¤ Avoiding — refusing to confront the conflict; used in hostile situations, when you have a lack of authority to make decisions, or when someone else can do it better.

¤ Forcing — using your power to resolve an issue; used when you know a decision is outside the project scope, when there is potential for legal issues, or when facing major time constraints.

¤ Compromise — willing to make concessions; used when you need their support, when it will not have major impact on a project, when it is a no-win situation, or when you need something in return.

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¤ Collaboration — willing to work together to resolve issue; used whenever possible unless you know it will create legal or ethical issues.

¤ Your goal should be to collaborate whenever possible.

8. Complete the project.

• Conduct an Aer Action Review (AAR). is is a process to review what worked and did not work by asking simple questions such as:

1. What did we say we would do?

2. Did we accomplish this?

3. What worked well; and what should we do again? 4. What did not work well; and what should we discard in the future?

• Use the AAR results for continuous improvement in the workplace

• Determine Return on Investment (ROI) of project

• Use ROI Model:

A simple Return on Investment expresses the profitability of an investment in terms of a percentage of benefit on the original investment outlay.

Return on Investment = Net Benefit / Net Investment Cost x 100 In the ROI of data modeling, this would translate to:

Return on Investment = Net Savings Due to Data Modeling / Net Investment Cost in Data Modeling x 100

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For example, assume a savings due to data modeling of $500,000, and a data modeling cost of $250,000. e return on investment is 200%.

ROI does not consider the time value of money or the economic life of the project. is is the most basic ROI model. Depending on your audience, you may want to consider more pertinent models.

Deliberate Decision Making

e 7-Step Decision-Making Model

Step 1: Receive the Requirement

Requirements, tasks, missions, problems, ideas, questions, issues, etc., can come from anywhere. The challenge is to determine what you can readily solve and which ones require a deliberate decision-making process.

Step 2: Analyze the Requirement

• Describe and assess the operating environment. Possible considerations include the budget, existing plans, administrative requirements, environmental considerations, and any operational/logistical considerations.

• Identify facts and assumptions. A fact is what you know to be true. An assumption is what you think to be true, but need to verify before proceeding with the project.

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• Identify specified and implied tasks. Specified Task: stated in the requirement, usually the operational tasks. Implied Task: not stated, but tasks you will need to accomplish in order to fulfill the require- ment. Oen implied tasks are the support (logistical/environmental) tasks associated with the requirement.

• Identify constraints. Constraints can take the form of a requirement to do something (i.e., reduce costs by 10%) or a prohibition on action (i.e., no increase in overtime).

• Determine essential tasks. Highlight the specified or implied tasks that are essential in order to fulfill the requirement.

Step 3: Re-State the Requirement

Re-write/re-phrase the requirement in terms of what you need to do. Include the essential tasks in the re-stated require- ment. Include the “who/what/when/where/why” elements in the re-stated requirement.

Step 4: Develop Options

Develop two or three options. Options should be uniquely different from each other. Options often are based on the methods used to achieve the requirement (timeline, equipment involved, sequence of the operation, program management, etc.). Conduct a brainstorming session with your team. Good project managers will weigh options between both tasks and people. Failure to do so will usually result in making bad decisions.

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Step 5: Select the Best Option

Determine the best option and then make a recommendation. Use all the planning/decision-making tools. Sometimes the best decision is to simply go with your gut feel.

Explain your recommendation, providing a summary of your results and comparisons. When done, get the appropriate approval required to move forward.

Step 6: Implement the Best Option (A Written Plan)

• Situation. Describe the operating environment, your higher requirements, any additional assets available that are not normally assigned to your operation, and any nonvalidated assumptions.

• Re-state requirements. A concise statement of the project — who/what/when/where/why.

• Project Management. Project overview, project intent, project outcomes, sequence of operations/timetable, PERT/Critical Path Charts, and any contingencies, branches, sequels. Directed requirements/tasks (to your subordinate/adjacent units/departments).

• Logistical/Administrative Support. Includes Maintenance, Employee Relations/Safety, Contractors, Clerical, Permitting/Environmental, and any other support aspects to the project.

• Communications and Supervision. Includes flow of information, scheduled project updates, responsibili- ties of project manager, chain of command for the project.

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Step 7: Lead, Monitor, and Refine the Decision

• Provide appropriate leadership for the successful accomplishment of the project (mentoring, teaching, coaching, directing, consensus building).

• Monitor the project (time tables/synchronization matrix, project management tools, forecasting).

• Prioritize your efforts (use critical events developed during option development).

• Refine the project by forecasting potential problems. (If___ occurs, then we shi the plan to ___.) Do not spend much time if you need to make minor changes; but use a change order or deliberate decision-making process if major changes are needed.

Use project-management tools to help you prioritize and manage your work efforts.

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Chapter 7

Stress Management for Leadership

e art of stress management is to keep you at a level of stimulation that is healthy and enjoyable.

Managing Stress

Stress is a natural occurrence for most people as they conduct their jobs. Learning to manage stress is a leadership skill that you need to master. Make no mistake: unmanaged stress can kill you or, at a minimum, shorten your life. e physical impacts of stress are real, relevant, and something you, as a leader, must be able to recognize.

Managing stress helps you to:

• Perform at the peak of your abilities when under immense pressure.

• Produce good-quality work even when tasks are dull and repetitive.

• Improve the quality of your life, health and job.

• Avoid the problems of exhaustion, depression, ill health, burnout, and breakdown that are associated with excessive levels of long-term stress.

Consider stress to be anything that stimulates you and increases your level of alertness.

Life without stimulus would be incredibly dull and boring. Life with too much stimulus becomes unpleasant, tiring, and may damage your health or well-being. Too much stress can interfere seriously with your ability to perform effectively.

e art of stress management is to keep you at a level of stim- ulation that is healthy and enjoyable. Information provided here will help you to monitor and control stress so that you can find and operate at a level that is most comfortable for you. We will discuss strategies to reduce or eliminate sources of unpleasant stress. We also will explain what can happen when you do not control stress properly.

Most people realize that aspects of their work and lifestyle can cause stress. But also, it can be caused by your environment and by the food and drink you consume. ere are several major sources of stress:

• Survival stress: is may occur in cases where your survival or health is threatened, where you are put under pressure, or where you experience some unpleasant or challenging event. Here adrenaline is released in your body and you experience all the symptoms of your body preparing for fight or flight.

• Internally generated stress: is can come from anxiously worrying about events beyond your

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control. From a tense, hurried approach to life; or from relationship problems caused by your own behavior. It also can come from an addiction to and enjoyment of stress.

• Environmental and job stress: Here, your living or working environment causes the stress. It may come from noise, crowds, pollution, untidiness, dirt or other distractions. Alternatively, stress can come from events at work.

• Fatigue and overwork: Here, stress builds up over a long period. is can occur when you try to achieve too much in too little time, or where you are not using effective time-management strategies.

While a certain level of stress is necessary in order to avoid boredom, high levels of stress for a sustained period can damage your health. Note that as the stress you are under increases, your ability to recognize it oen decreases.

The 50 Proven Stress Reducers

Consider these proven stress reducers for both personal and on-the-job stress relief.

1. Allow 15 minutes of extra time to get to appointments. Arrive at the airport at least 90 minutes before domestic departures.

2. Allow yourself time—every day—for privacy, quiet time, and thinking.

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3. Always set up contingency plans—just in case. (If for some reason either of us is delayed, here is what we will do ___ .)

4. Ask questions. Taking a few moments to repeat directions or what you think someone wanted you to do can save hours.

5. Be flexible. Some things are worth not doing perfectly; some issues are best resolved with compromise.

6. Be optimistic. Most people are doing the best they can.

7. Be prepared to wait. A paperback, magazine, or e-book can make a wait in line almost pleasant.

8. Check your breathing throughout the day, especially before, during, and aer high-pressure situations. If you find your stomach muscles are knotted and your breathing is shallow, relax all your muscles and take several deep, slow breaths. Note how, when you are relaxed, both your abdomen and chest expand when you breathe. When feeling stressed, most people breathe in short, shallow breaths. When this occurs, stale air is not expelled, oxidation of the tissues is not complete, and the result is muscle tension.

9. Count your blessings. For every one thing that goes wrong there are probably 50 or 100 things that go right.

10. Do one thing at a time. When you are with someone, enjoy their company. When you are busy with a project, concentrate on doing that project and forget about everything else you have to do.

11. Do something for somebody else.

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12. Do something that will improve your appearance. Looking better can help you feel better.

13. Do not forget to take a lunch break. Get away from your desk or work area in body and mind, even if it is just for 15 or 20 minutes.

14. Do not put up with something that does not work correctly. If your alarm clock, wallet, shoelaces, windshield wipers—whatever—are a constant source of aggravation, get them fixed or get new ones.

15. Do not rely on your memory. Write down appointment times, when to pick up the laundry, and when library books are due. (“e palest ink is better than the most retentive memory.”)

16. Eliminate (or restrict) the caffeine and sugar in your diet.

17. Eliminate destructive self-talk: “I am too old to … ,” “I am too fat to … ,” etc.

18. Every day, do something you really enjoy. Such as: Before speaking in public, visualize every part of the experience in your mind. Imagine what you will wear, what the audience will look like, how you will present your talk, and how you will answer questions. Visualize the experience the way you want it to turn out.

19. Focus on understanding rather than on being understood and loving rather than on being loved.

20. Forget about counting to 10. Count to 100 before doing something or saying anything that could make matters worse.

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21. Get enough sleep. If necessary, use an alarm clock to remind you to go to bed.

22. Get up 15 minutes earlier in the morning. e inevitable morning mishaps will be less stressful.

23. Get up and stretch now and then if you have to sit for long periods in your job.

24. Have a forgiving view of things. Accept the fact that we live in an imperfect world.

25. If an unpleasant task faces you, do it early in the day and get it over with.

26. Inoculate yourself against a feared event. Just as vaccine containing a virus can protect you from illness, if you expose yourself to one or more of the dreaded aspects of an experience beforehand, you probably will feel less fearful.

27. Learn to delegate responsibility to others.

28. Learn to live one day at a time.

29. Make duplicates of all keys (label them!). Bury a house key in a secret spot in the garden; carry a duplicate car key in your wallet.

30. Make friends with non-worriers. Nothing can get you into the habit of worrying faster than association with a worrier.

31. Organize your home and workspace so that you always know exactly where things are. Put things away where they belong; you will not have the stress of trying to locate misplaced things.

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32. Plan ahead. Do not let the gas tank get below one-quarter full, keep a well-stocked emergency shelf or home staples and do not wait until you are down to your last postage stamp to buy more.

33. Practice preventative maintenance. Your car, appliances, home, and relationships will be less likely to break down or fall apart at the worst possible moment.

34. Prepare for the morning the evening before (e.g., set the breakfast table, make lunches, and lay out the clothes you plan to wear).

35. Relax your standards. e world will not end if the grass does not get mowed this weekend.

36. Say “no” to extra projects, social activities and invitations for which you know you lack the time or energy. is takes practice, self-respect, and a belief that everyone, every day, needs quiet time to relax and be alone.

37. Schedule a fun day. Allow plenty of “breathing time” between appointments.

38. Select an environment (work, home, leisure) that matches your personal needs and desires. If you hate to talk politics, do not associate with people who live the subject.

39. Simplify, simplify, simplify.

40. Take a refreshing bath or shower to relieve tension.

41. Take care of today the best you can. e yesterdays and tomorrows will take care of themselves.

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42. Talk it out. Discussing your problems with trusted friends can clear confusion.

43. ink “diversion.” When stress gets in the way of getting a job done, take a break. Refresh yourself with a change in activity and/or environment.

44. Try the following yoga technique whenever you feel the need to relax. Inhale deeply through your nose to the count of eight. en, with lips puckered, exhale very slowly through your mouth to the count of 16, or for as long as you can. Concentrate on the long sighing sound and feel the tension dissolve.

45. Turn needs into preferences. Our basic physical needs are food, water, and keeping dry and warm. Everything else is a preference. Do not get attached to preferences.

46. Turn off your phone if you want to take a bath, meditate, sleep, or read without interruption.

47. Use your weekend time for a change of pace. If your work week is slow and patterned, make sure there is action and time for spontaneity built into your weekends. If your work week is fast-paced and full of people and deadlines, seek peace and solitude during your days off.

48. Wear earplugs. If you need to find quiet, but Junior must practice the trombone, pop in some earplugs (available in any drugstore)—and smile.

49. Whatever you want to do tomorrow, do today; whatever you want to do today, do it now. Procrastination is stressful!

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50. Write your thoughts and feelings down in a journal (or on paper to be thrown away). is will help you clarify things and give you a new perspective on things.

Planning to Manage Stress

We operate best at an optimum stress level. Not having enough stress leaves us feeling bored and lethargic. Having too much stress damages our performance in the short term, and can lead to unhappiness, exhaustion, burnout and serious illness in the long term. It may not be obvious initially what causes you stress, whether you are effective in controlling it, or what your optimum stress level is.

Keeping a stress diary is an effective way to learn what causes your stress and what level of stress you prefer. In your diary, jot down your stress levels and how you feel throughout the day. In particular, jot down stressful events. After a few weeks you should be able to analyze this information. It may be interesting to note the outcomes of the jobs you were doing when you were under stress.

is should give you two types of information:

1. You should be able to understand the level of stress you are happiest with and the level of stress at which you work most effectively. You may find that your performance is good even when you feel upset by stress.

2. You should know what the main sources of unpleasant stress in your life are. You should understand what

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circumstances make stress particularly unpleasant, and you should begin to understand whether or not your strategies for handling the stress are effective.

Once you understand the level of stress under which you work most effectively, and know precisely

what is causing it, the next stage is to work out how to manage the stress.

It is probably worth keeping the diary only for a short period of time. You will find that the longer you keep the diary, the smaller the benefit of each additional day will be. If, however, your lifestyle changes or you begin to suffer from stress again in the future, it may be worth using the diary approach again. You probably will find that the stresses you face have changed. If this is the case, then keeping a diary again will help you to develop a different approach to dealing with them.

Once you understand the level of stress under which you work most effectively, and know precisely what is causing it, the next stage is to work out how to manage the stress. e best way of doing this probably will be to make an action plan of things that you are going to do when stress occurs. Some elements of this action plan will be actions you are going to take to contain, control or eliminate problems that are causing you stress. Other elements may be health-related, such as exercising more, changing your diet, or improving the quality of your environment. Another part of the plan may be to

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develop stress-management techniques that you will employ when stress levels begin to build.

Increasing Stress Levels—Psyching Up

When you are not feeling motivated about a task, either because you are bored by it or because you are tired, you may need to psych yourself up. is will increase your level of arousal so you can perform effectively.

You can use the following techniques to psyche up:

• Focus on the importance or urgency of the task.

• Set a challenge for yourself—i.e., to do the job in a particular time or to do it to a particularly high standard.

• Tell yourself—“I can feel energy flowing into me.”

• Break jobs down into smaller jobs, doing each part between more enjoyable tasks. Take satisfaction from the successful completion of each element.

Stress-Reduction Techniques

When choosing methods to combat stress, it is worth asking yourself where the stress comes from. If outside factors such as important events or relationship difficulties are causing stress, then a positive thinking- or imagery-based technique may be effective.

When stress and fatigue are long term, lifestyle and organi- zational changes may be appropriate. If the feeling of stress

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comes from adrenaline in your body, it may help to relax the body and slow the flow of adrenaline.

By anticipating stress, you can prepare for it and work out how to control it when it happens. is can be carried out in a number of ways:

• Rehearsal: By running through a stressful event such as an interview or a speech several times in advance, you can polish your performance and build confidence.

• Planning: By analyzing the likely causes of stress, you will be able to plan your responses accordingly. is might include actions to alleviate the situation or may be stress-management techniques that you will use. Regardless, it is important that you formally plan for this. It is of little use just worrying in an undisciplined way and will be counterproductive.

• Avoidance: When a situation is likely to be unpleasant and will yield no benefit to you, avoid it. But you should be certain this is the case.

A number of factors can make an event take on a high level of significance and cause stress:

• e importance and size of the event

• e prospect of a large financial reward, a promotion, or a personal advancement

• e presence of family, friends, or important guests.

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If stress is a problem under these circumstances, then think carefully about the event, and take every opportunity to reduce its importance in your eyes:

• If the event seems big, minimize it by comparing it to a bigger event you may have attended.

• If there is a financial reward, remind yourself that there may be other opportunities for reward later. Focus on the quality of your performance. Focusing on the rewards will damage your concentration and raise stress.

• If members of your family are watching, remind yourself that they love you anyway. If friends are real friends, they will continue to like you whether you win or lose.

• If people who are important to your goals are watching, remind yourself that you may well have other chances to impress them. People who are supportive and want to see you succeed will give you the benefit of the doubt.

If you focus on correctly performing your tasks then the importance of the event will dwindle into the background.

Uncertainty can cause high levels of stress. Causes of uncer- tainty can be:

• Not having a clear idea of what the future holds:

¤ Not knowing where your organization is going ¤ Not having any career development plans

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¤ Not knowing what will be expected from you in the future • Not knowing what your boss or colleagues think of your abilities. • Receiving vague or inconsistent instructions.

In these cases, lack of information or the actions of other people are negatively affecting your ability to perform.

e most effective way to counter this is to ask for the infor- mation you need. is might include asking for information about your organization’s performance. It may involve asking what your employer wants from you in the future so that you can set the appropriate career-development goals.

If you are unsure of how you are doing, ask for a performance review. When instructions are inconsistent or conflicting, ask for clarification. If you ask in a positive way, people are usually quite happy to help.

ought Awareness, Rational inking and Positive inking

ese three related tools are useful in combating negative thinking. Negative thinking causes stress because it damages your confidence that you are up to the task you face. Negative thoughts occur when you put yourself down, criticize yourself for errors, doubt your abilities, expect failure, etc. Negative thoughts also damage confidence, harms performance, and paralyzes mental skills.

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ought awareness is the process by which you observe your thoughts for a time, perhaps when under stress, and become aware of what is going through your head. It is best not to suppress any thoughts; just let them run their course while you observe them. Watch for negative thoughts while you observe your stream of consciousness. Normally these appear and disappear unnoticed.

Examples of common negative thoughts are:

• Worrying about how you appear to other people • A preoccupation with the symptoms of stress • Dwelling on consequences of poor performance • Self-criticism, feelings of inadequacy

Make a note of the thought and then let the stream of con- sciousness run on. ought awareness is the first step in the process of eliminating negative thoughts. You cannot counter thoughts you do not know you think.

Once you are aware of your negative thoughts, write them down and review them rationally. See whether the thoughts have any basis in reality. Oen you find that when you properly challenge negative thoughts they are obviously wrong. Oen they persist only because they escape notice.

You may find it useful to counter negative thoughts with positive affirmations. You can use affirmations to build confidence and change negative behavior patterns into positive patterns. You can base affirmations on clear, rational

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assessments of fact, and use them to undo the damage that negative thinking may have done to your self-confidence.

Examples of affirmations are:

• I can do this. • I can achieve my goals. • I am completely at peace with myself and people will like me for myself. • I am completely in control of my life. • I learn from my mistakes. ey increase the basis of experience from which I can draw. • I am a well-valued person in my own right.

Traditionally people have advocated positive thinking almost recklessly, as if it is a solution to everything. It should be used with common sense. No amount of positive thinking will make everyone who applies it an Olympic champion marathon runner (though an Olympic marathon runner is unlikely to have reached this level without being pretty good at positive thinking). Decide what goals you can realistically attain with hard work and then use positive thinking to reinforce these goals.

Physical relaxation techniques

ese are useful when stress is caused by physical processes in your body. Perhaps where muscles are tense, or where you are experiencing the effects of adrenaline. Exercising frequently is probably one of the best physical stress-reduction techniques

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available. Exercise not only improves your health and reduces stress caused by unfitness, but it also relaxes tense muscles and helps you to sleep.

Exercise has a number of other positive benefits you may not be aware of:

• It improves blood flow to your brain, increasing sugars and oxygen that may be needed when you are thinking intensely.

• When you think hard, the neurons of your brain function more intensely. As they do this they build up toxic waste products that cause decreased thinking in the short term and can damage the brain in the long term. By exercising, you speed the flow of blood through your brain, moving these waste products faster. You also improve this blood flow so that even when you are not exercising, waste is eliminated more efficiently.

• It can cause a release of chemicals called endorphins into your bloodstream. ese give you the feeling of happiness and well-being.

ere are a lot of wrong approaches to exercise. Many tradi- tionally recommended forms of exercise actually damage your body in the medium or long term. It is worth finding reputable and up-to-date sources of advice on exercise, possibly from a fitness specialist, and have them create a customized exercise plan for you. An important thing to

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remember is that exercise should be fun; if you do not enjoy it, then you probably will not keep doing it.

Deep breathing is a very effective method of relaxation. It is the core component of everything, including the take-ten-deep- breaths approach to calming down someone, as well as yoga relaxation and Zen meditation. It works well in conjunction with other relaxation techniques such as Progressive Muscular Relaxation, relaxation imagery, and meditation to reduce stress.

Techniques for Reducing Long-Term Stress

e main emphasis in the management of long-term stress is on adjusting your working methods and your lifestyle. Formal relaxation techniques have a part in this, but equally impor- tant are time-management skills, a positive attitude, a healthy diet with sufficient exercise and adequate rest, and a pleasant environment. Adjusting these things will improve the quality of your life as well as increase your resistance to stress.

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Chapter 8

Leadership Ethics

It is better to ask for permission than to ask for forgiveness

Ethical Choices

Ethical leaders are fair, consistent, and place the interests of their organization and team above their own. Ethical leaders exemplify solid ethical conduct for their entire team, all the time.

Ethical leadership requires us to consider our organizational values along with our personal ones as we conduct our business communications. Ethical leadership begins with identifying your own personal values and morals. You then need to know your organizational values or code of conduct. If your company does not have stated values or such a code, you should at least determine values and a code of conduct for your team.

Ethical decision making requires us to consider more than just the decision itself. It requires us to consider the choices available in terms of our business ethics. You first need to recognize if a moral or ethical conflict exists, and then you

have to evaluate alternatives from an ethical perspective in order to determine the right thing to do.

We frequently hear of an organization being accused of ethical misconduct. Almost all of these organizations had a code of ethics, detailed policies, and codes of conduct. But it is not the organization that behaved unethically. It was indi- viduals who misbehaved for one reason or another. In most circumstances, individuals, not organizations, make ethical choices, right or wrong.

Yet in most cases, we are not talking about bad people. It is usually good people who make bad choices.

A Self-Assessment

Consider these questions for a few moments.

In the last six months have you or someone you know:

• Called in sick when you/they actually were not? • Broken a confidence? • Ignored a policy or procedure? • Told a joke that might have offended someone? • Covered up a mistake made by someone else? • Covered up a mistake that you made? • Used an organization’s resources for personal use? • Received too much change when making a purchase and kept the extra money? • Made a copy of something without paying for it? • Told a little white lie?

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• Taken credit for someone else’s efforts? • Gossiped about someone in the office? • Fudged on an expense report? • Broke a “stupid” work rule? • Reproduced some personal documents on a printer or copier at work?

e ultimate leadership responsibility is modeling the behaviors you expect from others. To a large degree, you operate in a fishbowl. Employees are constantly watching you and learning from you. ey rightfully assume that it is okay to do whatever you do. Regardless of what is written or said elsewhere in the organization, your behavior is the performance standard employees will follow. at is a huge comes-with-the-territory responsibility. But it is also a great opportunity to be able to influence the ethics of your work unit and the entire organization.

Who is responsible for acting ethically? You are! It is not the company. It is not just the business owner. It is not only your manager. It is every person, regardless of position. Ultimately, each of us is responsible for our own actions, including being ethical. Considering the “3R’s” will point you and your em- ployees in the right ethical direction.

e first “R” of business ethics is RESPECT. It is an attitude that must be applied to people, organizational resources, and the environment. Respect includes behavior such as:

• Treating everyone (customers, co-workers, vendors, etc.) with dignity and courtesy.

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• Using company supplies, equipment, time, and money appropriately, efficiently, and for business use only.

• Protecting and improving your work environment, and abiding by laws, rules and regulations that exist to protect our world and our way of life.

e second “R” of business ethics is RESPONSIBILITY. You have a responsibility to your customers, your co-workers, your organization and yourself. Included are behaviors such as:

• Providing timely, high-quality goods and services.

• Working collaboratively and carrying your share of the load.

• Meeting all performance expectations and adding value.

e third “R” of business ethics is RESULTS. Understanding that the way results are attained—the means—is every bit as important, if not more important, than the ultimate goals— the ends. Using the phrase, “e end justifies the means” is an excuse too oen used to explain an emotional response or action that was not well-planned or carefully considered.

Obviously, you are expected to get results for your organization and customers. However, you are also expected to get those re- sults legally and morally. If you lose sight of this responsibility, you jeopardize your job, business and career.

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Values-based Decision Making

A values-based, decision-making template

1. Discuss the situation and describe the difference between behavior observed and behavior expected based upon your mission, vision, and values.

2. Explore why there might be a difference between what is observed and what is expected.

3. Differentiate between the symptoms of the problem (what you are seeing) and the problem itself (why it might be occurring).

4. Develop a strategy to address the problem(s) with the person and/or others involved in the situation.

5. Identify specific conversational actions you will take and how you will use your mission, vision, and values to address the situation. What are your core messages?

As a leader, you have the ultimate responsibility for your actions. You, and you alone, are responsible. You can never forget, that if you are a supervisor or manager, you need to provide the means that allow your people to act ethically. is is how an organization supports the ethical actions of its em- ployees.

Knowing what is ethical and what is not is essential. However, it’s far more difficult to do what’s right than to know what’s right. Doing the right thing is not always easy, but it is always right. It is a requirement for long-term success.

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e first step in doing what is right is to ask yourself if it meets ethical or moral guidelines before moving ahead or implement- ing a decision.

Use the questions below for guidance to test if a decision or action is ethical or moral. ese are similar to the guidelines for knowing what is right.

If you answer “no” to any of the questions, you should develop an alternate strategy, or seek counsel and advice from appropriate sources.

Do what is right: Will it pass the Ethical Action Test for ideas and actions? • Is it legal? • Does it comply with company rules and regulations? • Is it in sync with organizational values? • Will you be comfortable and guilt-free if you do it? • Is it in line with stated commitments and guarantees? • Would I do it to my family or friends? • Would it be OK for someone to do it to me? • Would the most ethical person you know do it? • How would this look on the front page of my local newspaper?

ese are practical and useful tests of your ideas and actions that will help you live up to your responsibility to be ethical and successful. However, you should not limit these to only your business dealings. Remember, acting ethically is not something you simply turn on and off. It is a part of everything you do.

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When In Doubt About Ethics Questions—ASK!

There is a common phrase in today’s business world that people use to justify their actions or determine ways to over- come the obstacles of bureaucracy, “red tape,” and move a project ahead. is phrase is: It is easier to ask for forgiveness than to ask for permission.

In the context of ethics, however, this statement is incorrect and could cause people to act unethically. When dealing with ethics, this concept would serve you best if you reversed it: It is better to ask for permission than to ask for forgiveness.

The reason for this is that the stakes in behaving ethically in business are very high. We see weekly, if not daily, news reports about how one or two people made poor ethical choices that caused disaster in their company. One poor decision could potentially impact hundreds, even thousands of people. When the results of the decisions you make have the potential to affect so many, it is better to ask for permission before you act.

The most important thing to remember is to keep asking until you get an answer.

You are expected to continually do what is right and ethical at work. ere are resources available to you (e.g. employee handbook, the organization’s mission, vision, and values;

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the values and attributes of leadership, etc.) to help meet that expectation. Use those resources when needed and obtain input from others whenever you can.

Whenever you are unsure if an action you are about to take is appropriate or not, ask a proper authority such as your boss, a senior manager, a mentor, the owner (if you work at a small company), someone in the Human Resources Department, or in the Legal Department for counseling. e most important thing to remember is to keep asking until you get an answer.

Business Ethics and Compliance

Business ethics involves a lot more than compliance with company policies, laws, and financial regulations. Most organizations do not have problems with people following these rules and regulations. Instead, it is the little things that cause problems. It is our day-to-day seemingly insignificant actions and behaviors that have the greatest chance of causing ethical issues.

e little things that we do every day can become so repeti- tious that we tend to forget we are even doing them. However, the “little things” we do can have a significant impact on people who observe these behaviors.

Remember, your behavior sets an example. Even if you are not the boss, there is always someone watching you for cues on how to act in certain situations — whether good or bad. ese observers may be your fellow workers, neighbors,

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spouse, or children. What messages are you sending by your actions, words and attitudes?

To help you examine your personal ethics and see where you stand and where you need to improve, consider the following:

• Little white lies you tell • Jokes you share • e way you treat and talk about co-workers • ings you say and do to make a sale • E-mails you write and those you forward • e way you handle customer complaints (including the number of people they get passed to) • What you put on your billing sheets, time sheets, and expense reports • Office supplies you take home • Commitments you do not keep • Personal business you conduct at work • Unimportant work rules you fail to follow • Non-work items you reproduce on the copy machine • Standards you set for yourself • e level of quality you put into whatever you do • Credit you share with others

ese and scores of additional behaviors like them reflect who you are and what you stand for. When it comes to ethics and integrity, everything is important — including (and especially) the small stuff.

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Know What Cannot be Compromised

Every business owner knows that there are some aspects of work that are discretionary and other aspects that must be followed exactly.

Discretionary areas of business are those situations where you and your employees have room to maneuver, compromise, bargain, and make deals as long as they are within certain pre-established boundaries.

Nondiscretionary areas are topics or situations with very specific rules and regulations that must be followed exactly as written and expected. Compromise or deviation are un- acceptable in these areas.

Safety is one nondiscretionary area that immediately comes to mind. ere are certain safety procedures that MUST be followed according to specific guidelines. Any exceptions to the rules could pose danger to workers. However, there are other areas where your employees may not have quite as clear of an understanding of what is ethically correct and what is not.

To act ethically, it is vitally important that you, as a leader, understand what actions fall into each area — discretionary or nondiscretionary. It is also important that you pass this understanding on to all team members as well as everyone else in the organization.

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Different organizations and businesses provide different guidelines on operational latitude. ese differences may be due to the responsibilities that employees have in performing certain jobs; or the job requirements themselves may permit only a certain procedure.

Universal Norms

However, there are several areas where zero tolerance for violations is allowed regardless of the organization. These universally accepted norms include:

• Laws and regulations • Public and employee safety • Truthfulness and accuracy of records and statements.

Stop and think about what would happen if you did not obey laws and regulations. In addition, most safety rules were created because injuries occurred or obvious danger existed in workplaces. Finally, business is based on trust and truth- fulness. If records and statements are not accurate, trust is lost.

Company-Specific Standards

Businesses may add specific policies and procedures they wish to enforce for the well-being of the company or to simply differentiate their company from competitors. In all cases, ethics simply cannot be compromised. As a leader, you must set the example to ensure that team members know what the ethical boundaries are.

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As a leader, you may be faced with a situation where an employee proposes an action or solution that you believe is not ethical or is outright wrong. What do you do? What do you tell the employee?

You may be tempted to do what is asked because you know the person or you feel obligated for some other reason. In any event, fight the temptation. Take a stand and say “NO,” but say it with tact and respect.

Do not accuse the other person of being unethical. Instead, use “I” statements to describe your feelings. State your objec- tion and concern without indicting them.

Here is how:

• I have serious concerns about that, and I need your understanding … • I honestly believe it is wrong because … • I cannot do what I feel is wrong …

Propose an alternate action that you feel is ethical.

• I think I know what you want to accomplish, and I feel there is a better way to do it. How about …

Ask for the person’s help and agreement.

• I really need your help. • I want to make sure we both do the right thing. • Will you go along with me on this one?

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Here are some words of wisdom from well-known individuals about this topic:

“Keep true, never be ashamed of doing right, decide on what you think is right, and stick to it.”

— George Elliot

“If you do not stand for something, you will fall for anything.” — Multiple sources

“To know what is right and not do it is the worst cowardice.” — Confucius

“Honesty is the cornerstone of all success, without which confidence and ability to perform cease to exist.” — Mary Kay Ash

“It is not who is right, but what is right, that is of importance.” — omas H. Huxley

Acting ethically sets an example. Others see your actions. Once the ethical barrier has been breached, others may assume it is appropriate to act unethically and improperly in any situation.

Knowing What is Ethical Takes On More Importance As Business Scandals Make Headlines

Investigations of many high-profile companies accused of unethical conduct show that most had elaborate policies or guidelines on ethics. e company did not break the rules. Instead, it was one or more individuals who did not follow

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the established policies and guidelines. Again, regardless of the code of ethics put into place, a key point to remember is that organizations do not make ethical decisions. Individuals do. A business or organization simply provides the environ- ment for people to act ethically and morally.

To help you determine if your actions are ethical, compare them to these six basic guidelines for ethical business operations.

1. Laws: Laws are created to help society function. Is the action you are considering legal? Do you know the laws governing the activity? In general, ignorance of a law is no excuse for breaking the law.

2. Rules and Procedures: Companies create specific policies and procedures to help ensure success of the business and to avoid problems. How does your planned action compare to what is stated in the company’s policies and procedures?

3. Values: ese social principles help to create society’s laws and a company’s policies and procedures. In turn, laws and policies reinforce the values. One example of values is to ask yourself: “Does the action I am considering follow not only the letter of the law, but also the spirit of the law?” Is your action in agreement with the overall purpose of a law or rule? Or are you attempting to find a loophole?

4. Conscience: is internal sense of right and wrong develops at an early age. Your conscience recognizes certain principles that lead to feelings of guilt if you

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violate the principles. Will your actions make you feel guilty? Can you truly justify your actions to yourself?

5. Promises: Business is based upon trust. It is the belief that you will deliver on what you say you will do. Will your actions live up to the commitment that you made to the other person (customer, client, supplier, employee, and employer) in the business relationship? Will your action build more trust?

6. Heroes: Every person has at least one individual who is a role model in some way. A hero may be a parent, teacher, coach, mentor or friend. Is your action something that your hero would do in the same situation? How would your hero act?

Using these six guidelines, along with the other information contained in this section, will help you in your decision making and ensure that your actions are legal, ethical, and follow your organization’s standards and procedures.

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Chapter 9

Time Management and Delegation

Planning can help ensure that you focus your time and efforts on tasks critical to your goals instead

of on tasks that have little to no effect on the desired outcomes.

Time Management

Perhaps one of the biggest challenges you will have as a leader is to manage your time effectively. You will be pulled in several directions on a daily basis, typically all at the same time. Between the office requirements, your team needs, and the organizational demands, you will be hard-pressed to get everything done.

Effective time-management skills can help you deal with the day-to-day demands and help lower stress, which is an important supervisory consideration as you make your lead- ership transition. In this section, we will discuss what time management means and offer several practical tools that can help you to better manage your time and perhaps even manage your life.

Prioritization

Prioritization is an essential task needed to make the best use of your team’s efforts.

It is more important when time is limited and demands are unlimited.

With good prioritization, you can bring order to chaos, reduce stress, and complete essential tasks.

Prioritization based on project value or profitability is the most commonly used.

Time constraints are important when other people are depend- ing on you to complete a task.

Pressure from other sources to complete a job generally ranks higher over other tasks.

General Tips and Techniques for Improving Your Time Management

• Clear your desk and plan your activities for the next day.

• First, list your time-specific items, such as meetings, and then write down the tasks you have to complete.

• Once you have prioritized your tasks, make a “to do” list and work through the items in order of priority.

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• Ensure that you have given yourself sufficient time to complete your to do list, taking into account your daily interruptions.

• Complete difficult jobs first, when you are at your best. Attend to minor jobs when you are tired.

• Set deadlines for all jobs and stick to them. A task should take only the time set aside for it.

• Do not postpone important matters that are unpleasant. Jobs rarely get more pleasant by being postponed. Do them now!

• Try to arrange set times for routine jobs such as going through the mail, talking with your manager or staff, computer input, etc.

• Try to set up times when you are not to be disturbed for anything other than emergency purposes.

• Plan your telephone calls. Make a brief note of what you want to say and what you want to find out. It saves time later.

• If you have several phone calls to make, make them all in the same pre-allotted time frame.

• When you start a job, try to finish it without interruptions. If you have to finish it later, you will lose time picking up where you le off.

• Arrange your breaks at times when you cannot work effectively.

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• Plan some time for discussing routine matters with your colleagues. en you avoid interrupting each other all the time.

• Learn to say “No.” Get used to asking yourself, “Am I the right person for this job?”

• Monitor how you use your time and make conscious changes to your behavior.

• Stress and fatigue are rarely caused by the things you have done, but by the thought of what you have not done!

• Make it a habit to finish the most important job of the day before you go home.

How Planning Helps You to Use Your Time Effectively

Planning can be considered an investment in efficiency and success. Planning is the process by which you work out what you want to achieve, and then think through the who, what, when, where, why and how achieving that goal in the most effective way possible.

Planning can help ensure that you focus your time and efforts on tasks critical to your goals instead of on tasks that have little to no effect on the desired outcomes.

Planning can be broken down into two main categories: personal planning, which is best done by setting goals, and project planning, which is best achieved by a formalized application of the planning process.

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Goal setting is a formal process of setting personal targets in a number of areas. e process of setting goals on a routine basis helps you decide what you want to achieve with your time and then establish precise personal strategies for achieving this.

Setting goals has the additional benefit of raising your self- confidence by allowing you to recognize your ability and competence when you achieve your goal.

To-do lists are simply a way of organizing your day effectively by ranking tasks in order of importance. ey are lists of tasks relevant to the daily goals that could encompass specific targets you have for the day or simply the efficient use of your time.

Even though to-do lists are simple by nature, they can be powerful when used to organize your day, which will help reduce your levels of stress.

Problems oen can seem too large or you may simply feel overloaded with the number of demands on your time. is can leave you feeling hopeless and lost. e solution is oen as simple as writing each task down and then breaking it into smaller subtasks. If still too large, break it down again. Then prioritize all of the tasks and subtasks by order of importance. By doing this, it will allow you to separate those truly important jobs from those trivial, everyday tasks, thereby giving you more control over your day and reducing stress.

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Delegation

Delegation involves passing responsibility for the completion of work to other people. is section examines the reasons why you should delegate, how to delegate, what happens when you fail to delegate, and what should not be delegated. Delegation is useful for the following reasons:

• Once people learn how to work with you, and learn what you do, they can take responsibility for jobs you do not have time to do.

• It allows you to develop people to look aer routine tasks that are not cost-effective for you to do.

• It transfers work to people whose skills in a particular area may be better than yours, thereby saving time and unnecessary effort.

• Transferring responsibility develops your staff and can increase their job satisfaction.

Your goal as a manager should be to let your staff carry out those routine activities that normally take up most of your day. is will leave you time to do those more important tasks critical to your organization’s success.

How to Delegate

e following points may help you in delegating jobs:

• Deciding what to delegate: One way of deciding what to delegate is to create a list of everything that you do. en rate each item according to the order of

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importance, the time it takes to accomplish each, and the return on investment for your time. ose tasks ranked the lowest in each category should then become the items that you begin to delegate.

• Select capable, willing people to carry out jobs: How far down the line you delegate jobs will depend on the ability, experience and reliability of your people. Good people will be able to carry out large jobs with no intervention needed. Inexperienced or unreliable people will need close supervision, coaching, and mentoring to help improve their abilities to carry out larger and more important tasks in the future.

• Delegate complete jobs: It is much more satisfying to work on a task as a whole than to simply be delegated fragments of it. is helps ensure completeness of the job as well as continued pride and responsibility for the person to whom you delegated the task.

• Explain why the job is important and what the expected outcomes are: When you delegate a job, explain how it fits into the overall picture of what you are trying to achieve. Ensure that you effectively communicate:

¤ e importance of the job ¤ e results that are expected ¤ e constraints within which the job must be performed ¤ e deadlines for completion ¤ Dates when you want progress updates

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• en let go: Once you have decided to delegate a task, let the person you delegated the task to get on with it. Check in with them periodically, but do not constantly look over their shoulders. Recognize and accept the fact that they may know a better way of doing something than you do. If they make a mistake, that is okay as long as it was not because of poor work practices or simply not doing the job. Mistakes are a great way for them to learn and grow.

• Help and coach when requested: It is important to support your subordinates when they are having difficulties, but do not do the job for them. If you do, then they will not develop the confidence to do the job themselves. Simply offer suggestions when they come to you seeking help.

• Accept only finished work: You have delegated a task in order to take things off your plate. Accepting partially completed jobs will do nothing more than fill your plate again and deny the persons to whom you delegated the task the experience they needed to complete the task.

• Give credit when a job has been completed: Public recognition builds the pride and confidence of the person who carried out the task and sets a standard for other employees to follow.

Despite the many advantages of delegation, some leaders do not delegate. is can be for the following reasons:

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• Lack of time: Delegating jobs takes time. Initially, you will need to invest time in training people to do the tasks you are delegating to them. You also will have to devote time to check on them, monitor their progress, and answer their questions. Ultimately, until they learn how to do the task, it probably will take longer than if you completed the task yourself. However, eventually you will realize a return on the investment of your time when a well-trained staff is able to help out when needed.

Most people will, with time, learn to do jobs correctly.

• Perfectionism—fear of mistakes: Just as you have to develop staff to do jobs without your involvement, you will have to let people make mistakes, and then help correct them. Most people will, with time, learn to do jobs correctly.

• ey enjoy getting their hands dirty: By doing jobs yourself you probably will get them done efficiently. But if doing this job takes work away from your team or takes you away from more important things that you should be doing, then your entire department will suffer. In addition, you will be sending the message that you do not trust them to do anything.

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• Fear of surrendering authority: Whenever you delegate, you surrender some element of authority (but not of responsibility!) is is inevitable. By delegating, however, you get the benefits of having adequate time to do YOUR job well.

• Fear of becoming invisible: When your department is running smoothly, it may appear that you have nothing to do. is is the time for you to think, plan, and improve your department’s process (and possibly even plan your next career move).

• Belief that staffers are not up to the job: Good people oen will underperform if they are bored. Delegation will oen bring the best out in them. People who are not so good will not be effective unless you invest time in them. Even seemingly incompetent people can be effective provided they find their niche. e only people who cannot be delegated to are those with super inflated egos.

It is common for people who are newly promoted to managerial positions to have difficulty delegating. They often have been promoted because they were good at what they were doing in their old job. e temptation then is for them to continue doing their old job instead of trying to learn their new one. is robs their subordinates of the opportunity to learn new tasks and grow their own careers, so avoid this at all costs.

While you should delegate as many tasks as possible, especially those that are not cost-effective for you to carry out, ensure that

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you do not delegate control of your team. Remember that you bear the ultimate responsibility for the success or failure of your team.

Steps in Delegation

Introduce the task Demonstrate clearly what needs to be done Ensure understanding Allocate authority, information, and resources Let go Support and monitor

Introduce the Task

1. Determine tasks to be delegated

• ose tasks you completed prior to assuming your new role • ose tasks your delegatees have more experience with • Routine activities • ose tasks outside the scope of your expertise

2. Determine tasks to retain • Supervision of subordinates • Long-term planning • Tasks only you can do • Assurance of program compliance • Dismissal of employees, performance counseling, etc.

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3. Select the delegatee

• Look at individual strengths and weaknesses • Determine interest areas • Determine need for development of delegatee

Demonstrate Clearly

1. Show examples of previous work 2. Explain objectives 3. Discuss timetable, set deadlines

Ensure Understanding

1. Clear communications 2. Ask for clarification 3. Secure commitment 4. Do not say “no” to them 5. Collaboratively determine methods for follow up

Allocate … Authority, Information, Resources

1. Grant authority to determine process, not desired outcomes 2. Provide access to all information sources 3. Refer delegatee to contact all individuals or specific resources that have assisted previously 4. Provide appropriate training to ensure success

Let go …

1. Communicate delegatee’s authority 2. Step back, let them work

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3. Use constrained access 4. Do not allow for reverse delegation

Support and Monitor 1. Schedule follow-up meetings 2. Review progress 3. Assist, when requested 4. Avoid interference 5. Publicly praise progress and completion 6. Encourage problem solving

Delegation Stressors

Loss of control? If you train your subordinates to do a task the same way you would yourself, then they will be exercising your control on your behalf.

Too much time spent on explaining tasks? e amount of time spent up front can be burdensome. But, continued use of delegation may free you up to complete other tasks and/or gain you some time for yourself to plan and think ahead.

Compromising your own value? By delegating appropriately, your value to the group/organization will grow at a greater rate because you will have more time to do more of the key leadership things.

Consequences of Poor Delegating

• Information and decision making not shared by the group

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• Leaders burn out

• When leaders leave groups, no one has experience to carry on

• Group morale becomes low and people become frustrated and feel powerless

• e knowledge and skills of the group/organization are shared by only a few people

• New members do not find ways to contribute to the work of the group.

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Chapter 10

Leading Change

Communicate on a regular basis, even if there is little to say.

Why Change?

Whether you are talking about re-engineering your business, restructuring your organization, promoting cultural transfor- mation, or keeping pace with your industry, you are talking about change. As you go through change processes, you will learn why change initiatives fail and will become familiar with the challenges of change.

ere are three stages of change leadership: establishing a sense of urgency, putting together the change coalition, and developing the change vision. As you master these skills as a leader, you will have a clear idea of what it takes to initiate the change process in a manner that ensures success.

Change is inevitable, and the rate at which society has been changing has grabbed headlines for many years. Nations around the world are experiencing dramatic shifts in their political, economic and social structures.

Even in our daily lives, we are being inundated with informa- tion from the news media, advertising, and the World Wide Web. e amount of information available to us is staggering. This has led some to believe that we have moved from the Information Age to the Knowledge Age. ey say that because of that, we are so immersed with information, there is a great need to figure out an effective way to filter information that has value from that which is meaningless.

e defining characteristic of the Knowledge Age is perpetual change. Unlike previous transformations, the move to the Knowledge Age is not a period of change followed by stability. It comes packaged with continuous change on an accelerating time cycle. is means that the kinds of knowledge that will serve individuals and our society are constantly evolving.

Consider these facts: One of the key skills of effective leaders is the ability to create and lead change. When change is completed effectively, the organization adapts, learns, and achieves its goals. However, all too oen, change efforts fail because they’re met with resistance and fear. Change can be as minor as relocating to a different office or as major as rapid growth or downsizing.

ese tips and tools will help you prepare for and lead effective change.

1. Create a clear vision. Define where you want to be. Do the necessary work to fully commit to the change.

2. Build a case for change. State where you are now versus where you need to be. Build a compelling case as to

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why change is needed. Change causes stress and dis comfort because of the unknowns that come with it. Build excitement, commitment, and awareness of the need for change. en gather support and gain agreement for your vision of the future.

3. Build a powerful guiding coalition. Identify those people that will help you gain commitment for the change. As a team, brainstorm ideas and formulate strategies on how you will overcome barriers to the change. Plan out those steps necessary to transition through the period of change.

4. Clarify roles. Make sure that each person fully understands their role in the change process and feels appreciated for their contribution.

5. Make sure you have the right players. Select those people who are open to change. Support them with the necessary training and resources.

6. Encourage constant open communication. Communicate your progress to the organization as well as what the next steps are on a regular basis. Feedback needs to occur at all levels: up, down, and laterally.

7. Encourage risk taking and brainstorming. Respect differences and test out new ideas and methods. Keep what works and get rid of what does not.

8. Sustain your belief in the change effort. Believe in the change effort and communicate that belief through your actions and words.

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9. Be prepared for the normal emotional reactions to change. Change can create instability, anxiety, conflict, and fear of the unknown. Lead people through this field of emotions by expressing empathy and using flexible leadership tactics.

10. Celebrate success. Acknowledge short term gains and communicate the successful change efforts.

Resistance to Change

10 Good Reasons Why People Resist Change and the Strategies to Overcome the Resistance 5

1. Surprise: People oen resist change because they have had little time to mentally prepare for it.

• Do not wait until all the decisions have been made before announcing them to an unsuspecting work group.

• Give advance notice and build commitment from the beginning.

• Include employees in the planning phase.

• Prepare and disseminate the vision as early as you can.

2. Self-Doubt: When faced with change, people oen ask, “Can I do this?”, “Do I have the skills?” or “Will I have to start all over again?” Feelings of inadequacy can undermine self-confidence which can lead to people holding on to that which is familiar.

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• Provide additional training to employees.

• Provide opportunities to practice new skills.

• Maintain an open environment for asking questions and receiving feedback.

3. Loss of Control: When people feel they have no power over decisions that affect them, they may become over-controlling in order to grasp something they can control—their refusal to adapt to the change.

• When practical, provide the opportunity for the employees to make choices.

• Involve employees in the change process from the start.

• Provide a continuous flow of information; do not wait until the end.

4. Debilitating Uncertainty: Uncertainty about what changes will bring is an inherent part of the change process. When uncertainty becomes overwhelming, it can cause too much discomfort and become too dangerous to allow for the possibility of change.

• Form a clear and concise vision.

• Build milestones into the schedule. • Leaders must set the example by taking the first steps themselves.

5. Disruption of Routines: With change, known routines and habits are thrown into turmoil, which can cause

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people to make mistakes on tasks they previously performed effortlessly and error-free.

• Do not change what does not need to change.

• Have and publish a change management plan.

• Maintain familiar work surroundings.

• Avoid wild changes that simply symbolize the new way.

6. Loss of Face: People oen infer that accepting changes means accepting that the way things were done in the past was wrong. To avoid looking stupid, people may feel they have to defend the old system. Unfortunately, leaders oen try to sell changes by pointing out the failures of the old methods.

• Listen to the concerns.

• Do not sell the change by making the old system look bad. Simply make the new approach look better.

• Use employee experience and knowledge to develop new and better methods — build upon past success.

7. Increased Workload: Change oen requires more energy, more time—simply more work! e extra work alone can cause resistance.

• Communicate with families if extra work time is involved.

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• Give credit and recognition if additional work time is required.

• Establish a reward system for the contributions, not just the additional time.

• Make certain that expectations match capabilities.

• Provide additional resources when needed.

8. Dangers are Real: Some change may create winners and losers—sometimes people will lose status or even their jobs as a result of the change. People oen ask “how will this change affect me?” and the answer may very well be negative.

• Leaders must be candid and open regarding the dangers associated with the change.

• Do not make false promises.

• If some will be affected negatively, let them know as soon as you can.

• Bad news does not get better with age.

9. Institutional Memory: Past negative experience with similar changes or unresolved issues can fuel resistance. People may ask “Have we not done this (unsuccessfully) before?”

• Listen to your employees, both as individuals and in groups.

• Empathize with differing viewpoints.

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• Provide outs for those unwilling/unable to cope with the new change (e.g. layoff packages, early retirements, transfers, etc.).

10. Personal Disruption: Resistance to change may be the result of things that are not job-related. Changes in the workplace can disrupt family routines or personal plans; people may resist in order to maintain order outside of the workplace.

• Leaders must be sensitive to disruptions caused by the change initiative.

• Develop ways to meet those employee needs previously satisfied by the old ways.

• Work with employee schedules.

• Allow some grieving time for the loss of the past.

Eight Common Errors Associated with Change Initiatives

1. Not establishing a great enough sense of urgency.

2. Not creating a powerful enough guiding coalition.

3. Lack of vision.

4. Undercommunicating the vision.

5. Not removing obstacles to the new vision.

6. Not planning for and creating short-term wins.

7. Declaring victory too soon.

8. Not anchoring changes in the organization’s culture.

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Sustaining Change

Promote a sense of curiosity within the organization. Never be satisfied with the current level of organizational knowledge.

Look and listen for current trends and knowledge. Keep your vision focused forward. Do not use team concepts to make everyone a generalist.

Build on unique skills and encourage learning across the board. Allow people to take a try-it-and-learn approach.

Leaders must look beyond today and reach for tomorrow. By focusing too much effort on today’s customers and their needs, future customers will go unheard and opportunities will be lost.

Look for meta-routines by asking “Why are we doing this? Why are we doing it this way?” Leadership is essential in order to build, nurture, and sustain core capabilities.

Barriers to Effective Change

e Six Barriers to Change

1. No compelling case for change:

• Failing to paint the right picture of the future state

• Poor employee involvement and discussion

• Failing to build up the case for change over time— too rushed

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• Failing to share key data with employees—lack of transparency

2. Not understanding what change is:

• Failing to see change as a journey, not a single event

• Oversimplified view of getting the change out the way

3. Little or no employee involvement:

• Failing to involve employees in feedback sessions

• Failing to involve employee teams in optimizing solutions and developing implementation plans that will work

4. Ownership confusion:

• Failing to clearly establish who is responsible for what and who is making the decisions

5. Ineffective implementation:

• Viewing implementation as the easy part

• Failing to clarify who is coordinating implementation

• An unclear transition plan of roles and responsibilities

• Poor alignment of the senior team around leadership behaviors

• Poor communication leads to confusion about what is happening, and when

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6. Perpetuating “the way we do things here” too long:

• Failing to see the impact of the wider sector or economic environment

• Good times may have masked some less-than- effective management practices

Leading Change

Step 1: Establish a sense of urgency

• Overcome complacency. A compelling need has to be developed and shared. Visible crises catch peoples’ attention and drive up the urgency levels.

• Make a clear case for change, approved at the appropriate level. • Create the right climate for change—lay the groundwork with stakeholders to create an initial sense of involvement and engagement with the challenge.

• Establish an understanding of the time needed, even if it is not fully defined.

• Provide an understanding of the consequences of not changing.

Step 2: Create a guiding coalition

• Power and credibility: To legitimize change (critical mass), ability to reward/confront.

• Pain and sacrifice: Personal stake. Pursue change despite personal needs.

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• Expertise: Informed and intelligent decision making.

• Public/private role: Commitment and ability to support change publicly/meet privately with agents.

• Pitfalls: Avoid those who create mistrust or put their own immediate interests above the greater goal.

• Who is accountable and approves changes?

• Who is responsible as leader of the change process?

• How will stakeholders be involved?

• Clarify the difference between line responsibility and support.

• R.A.C.I.

¤ Who is Responsible? What are they responsible for?

¤ Who is Accountable? Do people understand this?

¤ Who will be Consulted (before decisions are made)?

¤ Who will be Informed (aer decisions are made)?

• Identifying and involving “change champions.”

Step 3: Develop a vision and strategy

Vision: Develop, articulate, and communicate a shared vision of the desired change that is:

• Imaginable — Creates a picture

• Desirable — Appeals to the long-term interest

• Feasible — Realistic and attainable

• Focused — Clearly guides decisions

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• Flexible — Allows for changing conditions

• Communicable — Explained in five minutes.

Step 4: Communicate the vision

• Keep it simple. Lose the jargon. Create verbal pictures.

• Lead by example. Your behavior speaks loudly and clearly.

• 2-Way: Listen and share. Recognize that everything you say and do is part of the communication process.

• Develop a communication plan that includes how and when you will tell people what, and by which medium. Be as open as you can and tell the truth, even if this means saying you do not know or cannot say. Communicate on a regular basis, even if there is little to say. It is much more important to keep the regular channels open than to only say what you need to say when you need to say it. Seek feedback at every opportunity to encourage involvement.

• It is important to build and maintain a project plan for any change project. Include major tasks, deliverables, timeline, who does what, risk assessment, logistical issues, etc. A general project planning process is critical.

Step 5: Empower Employees

• Senior managers are the driving force and must walk the talk.

• Deploy the vision and motivate the masses.

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• Target resistance, measure readiness, and assess existing people/structures.

• Develop, train, reinforce, and support.

• Create a culture of empowerment, trust, and support.

• Set up measurement processes with clear targets.

• Focus on dealing with problems and potential roadblocks.

Step 6: Generate short-term wins

• Plan for and create regular wins.

• Recognize and reward people who facilitate the wins. • When momentum builds, resistance declines.

Step 7: Consolidate Gains

• Use increased credibility to change other systems that do not fit the vision.

• Hire, promote, and develop people who implement the change vision.

• Reinvigorate the process with new projects, themes, and change agents.

Step 8: Anchor new approaches

• May involve turnover.

• Maintain clear focus.

• Cultural change comes last, not first.

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• Embrace and overcome the resistance.

• Respect those who resist.

• Continue reinforcement of the shared vision.

• Reinforce behaviors in others.

• Recognize and take the best of the past with us.

• Celebrate victories as a team.

• Create realistic yet challenging goals and objectives.

• Maintain a strong sense of “we will succeed or fail together.”

–––––––––––– 5 Adapted from James O.B. Keener’s 1999 booklet, 10 Good Reasons Why People Resist Change: And Practical Strategies that Win the Day. Grand River, IW: Grand River Pub.

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Chapter 11

Performance Management