Week 8 Final - Queen Essays

September 27, 2025 Claire B 0 Comments

Good day writer,

Please see the attached pictures for the assignment instructions. Please be very detailed 7-10 with as many citations. My goal is to reach Chief Master Sergeant in the Air Force and possibly career field manager.

If you have any questions, please let me know.

Organization: United States Military, Air Force Enlisted

Organization Development & Change 11 edition Thomas G. Cummings • Christopher G. Worley

CHAPTER

General Introduction to Organization Development

Learning Objectives

Define and describe the practice and study of organization development (OD).

Describe the history and relevance of OD.

Distinguish OD and planned change from other forms of organization change.

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Organization Development Defined

Organization development is a system-wide application and transfer of behavioral science knowledge to the planned development, improvement, and reinforcement of the strategies, structures, and processes that lead to organization effectiveness.

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How are Change Management and Organization Development Different (1)

Organization Development

Enables “development” of individuals and the organization

Promotes values of human self-determination, potential, and growth

Concerns an organization’s capability to solve its own problems and adapt to its environment

Helps organizations develop knowledge to change and improve

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How are Change Management and Organization Development Different (2)

Change Management

Helps organizations implement specific changes (e.g., new technologies or a new organization structure)

Values and practices are highly pragmatic aimed to make change processes effective and efficient

Places importance on how well change is implemented and at what cost and speed, not whether the organization or its members have learned

‹#›

Relevance of Organization Development

OD helps organizations create effective responses and change capabilities in uncertain and changing conditions

Globalization of markets, environments and functions

Introduction of new technologies and digitalization

Managerial innovation through restructuring and new forms of work and organization

‹#›

Five Stems of OD Practice

‹#›

Action Research/Survey Feedback

‹#›

Likert’s Participative Management Program

Exploitive authoritative systems

Benevolent authoritative systems

Consultative systems

Participative group systems

‹#›

Quality of Work Life

Early QWL Work Design Approaches

Worker job satisfaction and mental health

Job enrichment, self-managed teams

Expanded QWL Approaches

Employee productivity and satisfaction

Larger scale, organization work groups, Quality Circles

Employee Involvement (EI) and Six Sigma

‹#›

Blake and Mouton’s Grid Organization

The Managerial Grid

Assessing an Individual’s Style of Management

Concern for Production vs Concern for People

Two Key Objectives

Improve planning by developing a clear logic and strategy for organizational excellence

Help managers gain the necessary knowledge and skills to supervise effectively

‹#›

Overview of the Book

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Organization Development & Change 11 edition Thomas G. Cummings • Christopher G. Worley

CHAPTER

Designing Interventions

Learning Objectives

Describe the interventions presented in the text.

Discuss how contingencies related to the change situation affect the design of effective OD interventions.

Discuss how contingencies related to the target of change affect the design of effective OD interventions

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Definition of an Intervention

An intervention is a set of sequenced and planned actions or events intended to help the organization increase its effectiveness.

Interventions purposely disrupt

the status quo.

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Four Major Types of Interventions

Human Process Interventions

Technostructural Interventions

Human Resources Management Interventions

Strategic Change Interventions

‹#›

Human Process Interventions

Process Consultation

Third-party Interventions (Conflict Resolution)

Team Building

Organization Confrontation Meeting

Intergroup Relations

Large group Interventions

Culture Change

‹#›

Technostructural Interventions

Parallel Structures

Total Quality Management

High-Involvement Organizations

Job Enrichment

Self-managed Work Teams

Reengineering

‹#›

Human Resources Management Interventions

Goal Setting

Performance Appraisal

Reward Systems

Coaching and Mentoring

Leadership Development

Career Planning and Development

Managing Work Force Diversity

Employee Stress and Wellness

‹#›

Strategic Change Interventions

Integrated Strategic Change

Organization Design

Downsizing

Dynamic Strategy Making

Self-designing organizations

Learning Organizations

Agile Organizations

Mergers and Acquisitions

Alliances

Networks

Sustainable Management Organizations

Global Social Change

‹#›

Characteristics of Effective Interventions

Is it relevant to the needs of the organization?

Valid information

Free and Informed Choice

Internal Commitment

Is it based on valid knowledge of intended outcomes?

Does it transfer competence and capability to manage change to organization members?

‹#›

Designing Effective Interventions

Contingencies Related to the Change Situation

Individual differences among organization members

Organizational factors (management style, technical uncertainty)

Dimensions of the Change Process (degree of top management support)

Cultural Values and Economic Development

‹#›

National Cultural Values

Context Orientation

Power Distance

Uncertainty Avoidance

Achievement Orientation

Individualism

‹#›

Context Orientation

The extent to which meaning in communication is carried in the words

Organizations in high context cultures tend to value ceremony and ritual, the structure is less formal, there are fewer written policies, and people are often late for appointments

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Power Distance

Extent to which members of a society accept that status and power are distributed unequally in an organization

Organizations in these cultures tend to be autocratic, possess clear status differences, and have little employee participation

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Uncertainty Avoidance

The extent to which members of a society tolerate the unfamiliar and unpredictable

Organizations in these cultures tend to value experts, prefer clear roles, avoid conflict, and resist change

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Achievement Orientation

The extent to which people in a society value assertiveness and the acquisition of material goods

Organizations in these cultures tend to associate achievement with wealth and recognition, value decisiveness, and gender roles are clearly differentiated.

‹#›

Individualism

The extent to which people in a society believe they should be responsible for themselves and their immediate family

Organizations in these cultures tend to encourage personal initiative, value time and autonomy, accept competition, and autonomy is highly valued

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Economic Development

Subsistence Economies

Primarily agriculture-based

Industrializing Economies

Moderately developed and tend to be rich in natural resources

Industrial Economies

Highly developed and emphasize nonagricultural industry

‹#›

Cultural and Economic Contexts of International OD Practice

‹#›

Contingencies Related to the Target of Change

Organizational Issues

Strategic Issues

Technology and Structure Issues

Human Resources Issues

Human Process Issues

Organizational Levels

Individual, group, organization and transorganization

‹#›

Strategic Issues

What are the functions, products, services, markets of the organization

How to gain competitive advantage

How to relate to environment

What values will guide organizational functions

‹#›

Technological and Structure Issues

How to divide labor

How to coordinate departments

How to produce products or services

How to design work

‹#›

Human Resources and Human Process Issues

Human Resources Issues

How to attract competent people

How to set goals and reward people

How to plan and develop people’s careers

Human Process Issues

How to communicate

How to solve problems

How to make decisions

How to interact

How to lead

‹#›

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Organization Development & Change 11 edition Thomas G. Cummings • Christopher G. Worley

CHAPTER

Collecting, Analyzing, and Feeding Back Diagnostic Information

Learning Objectives

Understand the importance of the diagnostic relationship in the OD process.

Describe the methods for collecting diagnostic data.

Understand the primary techniques used to analyze diagnostic data.

Outline the process issues associated with data feedback.

Describe and evaluate the survey feedback intervention.

‹#›

The Diagnostic Relationship

Who is the OD Practitioner?

Why is the practitioner here?

Who does the practitioner work for?

What does the practitioner want and why?

How will the practitioner protect your confidentiality ?

Who will have access to the data?

What’s in it for you (the organization)?

Can the practitioner be trusted?

‹#›

Cycle of Data Collection and Feedback

‹#›

Collecting Data

Questionnaires

Interviews

Observations

Unobtrusive Measures

‹#›

Surveys and Questionnaires

Major Advantages

Responses can be quantified and summarized

Large samples and large quantities of data

Relatively inexpensive

Major Potential Problems

Little opportunity for empathy with subjects

Predetermined questions — no chance to change

Over-interpretation of data possible

Response biases possible

‹#›

Interviews

Major Advantages

Adaptive — allows customization

Source of “rich” data

Process builds rapport and empathy with subjects

Major Potential Problems

Relatively expensive

Bias in interviewer responses

Difficult to code and interpret

Self-report bias possible

‹#›

Observations

Major Advantages

Collects data on actual behavior, rather than reports of behavior

Real time, not retrospective

Adaptive and objective

Major Potential Problems

Difficult to coding and interpret

Sampling inconsistencies

Observer bias and reliability can be questioned

Can be expensive

‹#›

Unobtrusive Measures

Major Advantages

No response bias

High face validity

Easily quantified

Major Potential Problems

Privacy, access and retrieval difficulties

Validity concerns

Difficult to code and interpret

‹#›

Sampling

Sample Size

Population vs. Sample

Importance of Sample Size

Sample Selection

Random

Stratified

‹#›

Analyzing Techniques

Qualitative Tools

Content Analysis

Force-field Analysis

Quantitative Tools

Descriptive Statistics

Relations Between Measures (correlation)

Difference Tests

‹#›

Force-Field Analysis of Work-Group Performance

‹#›

Feeding Back Data

The success of data feedback depends largely on its ability to arouse organizational action and to direct energy toward problem solving.

Both the content and process of data feedback impact whether the organization will be energized to act.

‹#›

Content of Feedback

Relevant

Understandable

Descriptive

Verifiable

Timely

Limited

Significant

Comparative

Unfinalized

‹#›

Effects of Feedback

‹#›

Effective Feedback Meetings

People are motivated to work with the data

The meeting is appropriately structured

The right people are in attendance

Knowledge of issues

Ownership and interest

Power and Influence

The meeting is facilitated

‹#›

Steps in Survey Feedback

Members are involved in designing the survey

The survey is administered to all members of the organization or work group

The data is analyzed and summarized

The data is presented to the stakeholders (top-down or bottom-up)

The stakeholders work with the data to solve problems or develop action plans

‹#›

Feedback and Organizational Dependencies

Recognize relationships between participating organizational units

Greater dependency among organization units requires coordinated survey feedback taking into account relationships between groups.

‹#›

Limitations of Survey Feedback

Ambiguity of Purpose

Distrust

Unacceptable Topics

Organizational Disturbances

‹#›

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Organization Development & Change 11 edition Thomas G. Cummings • Christopher G. Worley

CHAPTER

Managing Change

Learning Objectives

Understand the five key elements of successful change management

Explore the processes of change associated with each element

‹#›

Overview of Change Activities

‹#›

Motivating Change (1)

Creating Readiness for Change

Sensitize the organization to pressures for change

Identify discrepancies between current and desired states

Convey credible positive expectations for the change

‹#›

Motivating Change (2)

Lowering Resistance to Change

Provide empathy and support

Communicate

Involve members in planning and decision making

‹#›

Constructing the Envisioned Future

What are the bold and valued outcomes?

Specific performance and human outcomes that the organization would like to achieve

Clear, tangible, targets for organization action

What is the desired future state?

Vivid detail of the what the organization should look like when outcomes have been achieved

‹#›

Organization Change as a Transition

‹#›

Developing Political Support

Assess Change Agent Power

Identify Key Stakeholders

Influence Stakeholders

‹#›

Sources of Power and Power Strategies for Change Agents

‹#›

Managing the Transition (1)

Activity Planning

What’s the “roadmap” for change?

Commitment Planning

Who’s support is needed, where do they stand, and how to influence their

‹#›

Managing the Transition (2)

Change-Management Structures

What’s the appropriate arrangement of people and power to drive the change?

Learning Processes

What knowledge and skills does the organization need to support the new behaviors?

‹#›

Accelerating the Learning Processes During Change

Design Learning Processes into the Transition

Support Learning with Continuous Dialogue and Conversations

Create a systems view of the organization

Create shared meaning with models, language and tools so members have a common way of viewing the change

Engage in “after-action reviews’

Decentralize implementation processes and decisions to the lowest levels possible – “local self-design”

‹#›

Sustaining Momentum (1)

Provide Resources for Change

Build a Support System for Change Agents

Develop New Competencies and Skills

Reinforce New Behaviors

‹#›

Sustaining Momentum (2)

Stay the Course – Change requires time

Anticipate that financial and organizational benefits may lag behind implementation

Organization members need time to practice, develop and learn new behaviors

Successful change requires persistent leadership during transitions

‹#›

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Organization Development & Change 11 edition Thomas G. Cummings • Christopher G. Worley

CHAPTER

Entering and Contracting

Learning Objectives

Describe the issues associated with entering into an OD process.

Describe the issues associated with contracting for an OD process.

‹#›

Entering Into an OD Relationship (1)

Clarifying the Organizational Issue

What is the presenting problem?

Gain a clearer perspective of the underlying issues and symptoms

Gather enough preliminary data to make informed choices about the next steps

‹#›

Entering Into an OD Relationship (2)

Determining the Relevant Client

Identify organization members who can directly impact the change issue

Involve all relevant members in selection of an OD practitioner and the subsequent change process

Complex situations with multiple organizational units require additional data and interviews with key organization members and customers

‹#›

Entering Into an OD Relationship (3)

Selecting an OD Practitioner

Experience and Expertise

References – “How effective has the person been in the past, with what type of organizations, using what kinds of techniques?”

OD Practitioner approaches the organization with openness and insists on diagnosis vs. having a “fixed” approach

‹#›

Essentials of an Effective OD Proposal

Elements

Objectives of proposed project: Statement of the goals in clear and concise terms, including measurable results

Proposed process of action plan: Description of 1) diagnosis, 2) data analysis process, 3) feedback process, and 4) action-planning process

Roles and responsibilities: List of key stakeholders in the process, including the OD practitioner, and the specific responsibilities for which they will be held accountable

Recommended Interventions: Description of proposed change strategies, including training, off-site meetings, systems or processes to be redesigned, and other activities

Fees, terms and conditions: Provide an outline of fees and expenses associated with the project

‹#›

Developing a Contract (1)

Mutual Expectations

Outcomes and deliverables are clearly stated

Clearly defined working relationships and involvement of stakeholders

Expectations of OD Practitioner are clear (publishing cases and results)

‹#›

Developing a Contract (2)

Time and Resources

Access to client, key managers, members

Access to information

Ground Rules

Confidentiality

Practitioner’s role in the process

‹#›

Interpersonal Process Issues in Entering and Contracting (1)

Client Issues

Exposed and vulnerable in admitting the need for assistance and dependency on the practitioner to provide help

Inadequate in the ability to solve the organization’s problems

Fear of losing control

‹#›

Interpersonal Process Issues in Entering and Contracting (2)

OD Practitioner Issues

Empathy

Worthiness and Competency

Over identification

Under estimate the importance of the entry and contracting phase

‹#›

Factors Affecting Client-Practitioner Dynamics

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Organization Development & Change 11 edition Thomas G. Cummings • Christopher G. Worley

CHAPTER

Evaluating and Reinforcing Organization Development Interventions

Learning Objectives

Illustrate the research design and measurement issues associated with evaluating OD interventions.

Explain the key elements in the process of reinforcing OD interventions.

‹#›

Issues in Evaluating OD Interventions

Implementation and Evaluation Feedback

Measurement

Select the right variables to measure

Design good measurements

Operational

Reliable

Valid

Research Design

‹#›

Implementation and Evaluation Feedback (1)

Implementation

Feedback

Feedback aimed at guiding implementation efforts

Milestones, intermediate targets

Measures of the intervention’s progress

Evaluation

Feedback

Feedback aimed at determining impact of intervention

Goals, outcomes, performance

Measures of the intervention’s effect

‹#›

Implementation and Evaluation Feedback (2)

‹#›

Measurement

Selecting Appropriate Variables

Designing Good Measures

Rigorous Operational Definition

Provide precise guidelines for measurement: How high does a team have to score on a five-point scale to say that it is effective?

Reliability

Validity

‹#›

Sources of Reliability

Rigorous Operational Definition of the variables

Provide precise guidelines for measurement: How high does a team have to score on a five-point scale to say that it is effective?

Multiple methods to measure a particular variable

Surveys, interviews, observations and unobtrusive measures

Multiple items to measure the same variable on a questionnaire

Standardized Instruments

‹#›

Validity

Face Validity or Content Validity

Does the measure “appear” to reflect the variable of interest?

Criterion or Convergent Validity

Do measures of “similar” variables correlate?

Discriminant Validity

Do measures of “non-similar” variables show no association?

Predictive Validity

Does the variable of interest accurately forecast another variable over time?

‹#›

Research Designs in OD Interventions

Features of Strong Research Designs

Longitudinal Measurement

Change is measured over time

Comparison Units

Appropriate use of “control” groups

Statistical Analysis

Alternative sources of variation have been controlled

‹#›

Evaluating Different Types of Change

Alpha Change

Movement along a stable dimension

Beta Change

Recalibration of units of measure in a stable dimension

Gamma Change

Fundamental redefinition of dimension

‹#›

Reinforcing Organizational Changes

‹#›

Organization Characteristics

Congruence

Extent to which an intervention supports or aligns with the current environment, strategic orientation, or other changes taking place

Stability of Environment and Technology

Unionization

‹#›

Intervention Characteristics

Goal Specificity

Programmability

Level of Change Target

Internal Support

Sponsorship

‹#›

Reinforcing the Processes

Socialization

Commitment

Reward Allocation

Diffusion

Sensing and Calibration

‹#›

Indicators of Reinforcement

Knowledge

Performance

Preferences

Normative Consensus

Value Consensus

‹#›

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Organization Development & Change 11 edition Thomas G. Cummings • Christopher G. Worley

CHAPTER

Organization Process Approaches

Learning Objectives

Provide an overview of organization-level process approaches.

Explain two traditional organization process interventions- the organization confrontation meeting and the intergroup conflict method.

Describe and evaluate the effectiveness of large-group interventions.

Define and assess the effectiveness of culture change.

‹#›

Diagnostic Issues in Organization Process Interventions

Organization process approaches are driven by diagnostic data collected at the organization level.

OD practitioners should be able to clearly articulate a sound business case as to how the environmental pressures or organization design features constraining current effectiveness will be addressed by the process intervention.

‹#›

Organization Confrontation Meeting

The confrontation meeting is an intervention designed to mobilize the resources of the entire organization to identify problems, set priorities and action targets, and begin working on identified problems.

‹#›

Confrontation Meeting Process

‹#›

Intergroup Conflict Interventions

The quality of group relationships in an organization can affect how well the organization performs

Organizations with highly interdependent departments require good working relationships to be effective

Intergroup conflict interventions can focus on behavioral and attitudinal change solutions.

‹#›

Approach to Resolving Intergroup Conflicts

Groups and consultant convene to address issues

Groups are asked to address three questions

What qualities/attributes best describe our group?

What qualities/attributes best describe their group?

How do we think the other group will describe us?

Groups exchange and clarify answers

Groups analyze the discrepancies and work to understand their contribution to the perceptions

Groups discuss discrepancies and contributions

Groups work to develop action plans on key areas

‹#›

Attitudinal and Behavioral Group Conflict Interventions

Behavioral Group Interventions

Apply when task interdependence between the conflicting groups is relatively low and predictable

Attitudinal Group Interventions

Apply when task interdependence between the conflicting groups is high and unpredictable

‹#›

Large Group Interventions

Focus on issues affecting the whole organization or large segments of it, such as developing new products or services, responding to environmental change, or introducing new technology

Various Change Programs

Search Conferences

Open-Space Meetings

Open-Systems Planning

World Cafés

Decision Accelerators

Appreciative Inquiry Summits

‹#›

Large Group Intervention Assumptions

A variety of organization stakeholders must be involved to create an accurate view of the environment and organization

Stakeholders must develop a shared understanding of the environment to permit coordinated action

Participants perceptions must accurately reflect the condition of the environment if organizational responses are to be effective

Large group processes must create conditions for ownership and commitment.

‹#›

Large Group Intervention Process

Preparing for the large-group meeting

Identify a compelling meeting theme

Select appropriate stakeholders to participate

Develop relevant tasks to address meeting theme

Conducting the meeting

Open Systems Methods

Open Space Methods

Positive Methods

Following up on the meeting outcomes

‹#›

Open Systems Methods

Map the current environment facing the organization

Assess the organization’s responses to the environmental expectations

Identify the core mission of the organization

Create a realistic (or likely) future scenario given environmental expectations and organization capabilities

Create an ideal future scenario(s) of environmental expectations and organization responses

Compare the present with the ideal future and prepare an action plan for reducing the discrepancy

‹#›

Open-Space Methods

Set the conditions for self-organizing

Announce the theme of the session

Establish norms for the meetings

The “Law of Two Feet.”

The “Four Principles.”

“Whoever comes are the right people.”

“Whatever happens is the only thing that could have.”

“Whenever it starts is the right time.”

“When it is over, it is over.”

Participants create the agenda

Coordinate activity through information postings

‹#›

Positive Methods

Discover the organization’s positive core

Dream about and envision a more desired and fulfilling future

Design the structural and systems arrangements that will best reflect and support the vision or dream

Create the specific action plans that will fulfill the organization’s destiny

‹#›

The Concept of Organization Culture

‹#›

Defining and Diagnosing Organization Culture

Behavioral Approach

Pattern of behaviors (artifacts) most related to performance

Competing Values Approach

Pattern of values emphasis characterizing the organization

Deep Assumptions Approach

Pattern of unexamined assumptions that solve internal integration and external adaptation problems well enough to be taught to others

‹#›

Competing Values Approach to Culture

‹#›

Implementing Culture Change

Formulate a clear strategic vision

Display top-management commitment

Model culture change at the highest levels

Modify the organization to support change

Select and socialize newcomers; terminate deviants

Develop ethical and legal sensitivity

‹#›

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Organization Development & Change 11 edition Thomas G. Cummings • Christopher G. Worley

CHAPTER

The Organization Development Practitioner

Learning Objectives

Discuss the roles and characteristics of OD practitioners.

Describe the competencies required of effective OD practitioners.

Compare the internal vs. external OD practitioner.

Understand the values and ethics guiding the practice of OD.

‹#›

The Organization Development Practitioner

Internal and External Consultants

Professionals from other disciplines who apply OD practices (e.g., human resource management, organization design, quality control, information technology, and business strategy)

Managers and Administrators who apply OD from their line or staff positions

‹#›

Competencies of an OD Practitioner (1)

Intrapersonal Skills or Self-Management Competence

Know one’s values, feelings, and purposes

Integrity to act responsibly in a helping relationship with others

“Self-knowledge” is a core competency for OD practitioners

‹#›

Competencies of an OD Practitioner (2)

Interpersonal Skills

Ability to create and maintain effective relationships with individuals and groups

Practice of “active listening” skills to understand others perspectives and feelings

Serve as a credible role model for others to learn new skills and behaviors

‹#›

Competencies of an OD Practitioner (3)

General Consultation Skills

Ability to manage the consulting process

Ability to design and execute interventions

Know how to carry out an effective diagnosis in an organization

‹#›

Competencies of an OD Practitioner (4)

Organization Development Theory

General knowledge of organization development concepts

Understanding of planned change, the action research model, and the positive approaches to managing change

Familiar with a range of OD interventions

Understand their role as an OD professional, a manager or a specialist in a related area

‹#›

The Role of OD Professionals

Position

Internal vs. external

Marginality

Ability to straddle boundaries

Emotional Demands

Emotional intelligence

Use of Knowledge and Experience

‹#›

Client Versus Consultant Knowledge

‹#›

Careers of OD Professionals

Internal and External Consultants

Career choices expand with master’s degrees or doctorates in OD

OD careers may be stressful, leading to burnout from taking on too many jobs and constant travel

‹#›

Professional Values

Concern for open inquiry, democratic principles and personal well-being

Promote positive human, economic and ecological values

Conflicts exist between organization efficiency, effectiveness and optimizing human and environmental benefits

Organizational external relationships increase complexity and values judgement

‹#›

Professional Ethics (1)

Ethical Dilemmas

Misrepresentation

OD practitioners claim an intervention will produce results that are unreasonable

Clarity of goals of the change effort help prevent misrepresentation

Misuse of data

OD practitioners use data gathered punitively in the organization

Determine how data will be collected and used at the beginning of the initiative

‹#›

Professional Ethics (2)

Ethical Dilemmas (cont.)

Coercion

Organization members are forced to participate in an OD intervention interfering with freedom of choice which hinders development of independent problem solving

Helping relationships can foster dependency and manipulation

Value and Goal Conflict

The purpose of the change effort is not clear and clients and practitioners disagree over how to achieve goals

Technical Ineptness

Practitioners implement interventions that they are not skilled in or are not appropriate for the organization

‹#›

Model of Ethical Dilemmas

‹#›

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Organization Development & Change 11 edition Thomas G. Cummings • Christopher G. Worley

CHAPTER

The Nature of Planned Change

Learning Objectives

Describe and compare three major theories of planned change.

Introduce a general model of planned change that will be used to organize the material presented in the book.

Explain how planned change can be adopted to fit different contexts.

Critique the practice of planned change.

‹#›

Three Step Change Model

‹#›

Action Research Model

‹#›

Positive Model

‹#›

Continuous Change Model

‹#›

The Continuous Change Model

Addresses dynamic change requirements

Coordinates and prioritizes multiple changes simultaneously

Customized and more fluid change initiatives

Builds complex and continuous change capabilities into the organization

‹#›

Comparison of Planned Change Models

Similarities

Change preceded by diagnosis or preparation

Apply behavioral science knowledge

Stress involvement of organization members

Recognize the role of a consultant

Differences

General vs. specific activities

Centrality of consultant role

Problem-solving vs. social constructionism

‹#›

General Model of Planned Change

‹#›

Four Major Types of Interventions

Human process interventions at the individual, group and total system levels

Interventions that modify an organization’s structure and work design

Human resources interventions that seek to improve performance and wellness

Strategic interventions which consider relationships between the external environment, internal structure and processes

‹#›

Different Types of Planned Change

Magnitude of Change

Incremental

Fundamental

Degree of Organization

Over-organized

Under-organized

Domestic vs. International Settings

Adapted to the cultural context

Requires awareness of cultural biases

‹#›

Characteristics of Fundamental Planned Change

Driven by greater competitiveness and uncertainty in today’s environment

Involves most features and levels of the organization- is complex and extensive

Typically driven from executive level where strategy and values are set

May or may not be “developmental”

‹#›

Planned Change and Degree of Organization

Planned Change in Over-organized organizations

Loosens constraints on rigid overly defined procedures and processes

Increases the flow of relevant information between employees and managers

Planned Change in Under-organized organizations

Clarifies leadership roles

Develops structured communication between managers and employees

Specifies job and departmental responsibilities

‹#›

Traditional Phases of Planned Change in Under-organized Organizations

Identification of relevant people and groups

Convention – Relevant people or departments get together to begin organizing work processes

Organization – Systems are created to structure interactions between people and departments

Evaluation – Outcomes are assessed and adjustments considered

‹#›

Critique of Planned Change

Conceptualization of Planned Change

Change in not linear

Change is not rational

The relationship between change and performance is unclear

Practice of Planned Change

Limited consulting skills and focus

Quick fixes vs. development approaches

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Organization Development & Change 11 edition Thomas G. Cummings • Christopher G. Worley

CHAPTER

Talent Management

Learning Objectives

Examine and evaluate the coaching and mentoring intervention.

Describe the process of implementing management and leadership development interventions.

Understand how career planning and development interventions improve the individual’s personal competencies and enhance traditional human resource approaches.

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Coaching and Mentoring (1)

Coaching

Coaching involves working with organizational members, typically managers and executives, to help them clarify their goals, address potentially limiting behavioral style issues, and improve their performance

Mentoring

Mentoring involves establishing a relationship between a manager or someone more experienced and another organization member who is less experienced. It is often associated with the mentor intentionally transferring skills and knowledge to the mentee

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Coaching and Mentoring (2)

Goals

Assist in execution of a transition

Address a performance problem

Develop new behavioral skills with leadership development

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Coaching and Mentoring (3)

Application Stages

Establish the principles of the relationship

Conduct an assessment

Coach and client debrief the results

Develop and Implement an action plan

Assess the results

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Leadership Development Interventions

Goals

Changing the skills and knowledge of organization members to improve effectiveness and build capabilities

Application Stages

Perform needs assessment ( strategy, organization and individual)

Develop objectives and design the intervention (training)

Deliver the training

Evaluate the training

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Career Planning and Development Interventions

Career planning is concerned with individuals choosing jobs, occupations, and organizations at each stage of their careers.

Career development involves helping employees attain career objectives.

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Career Planning Mechanism

Communication regarding career opportunities and resources within the organization

Workshops to assess member interests, abilities, and job situations and to formulate career plans

Career counseling by managers or human resource department personnel

Self-development materials directed toward identifying life and career issues

Assessment programs that test vocational interests, aptitudes, and abilities relevant to career goals

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Career Stages (1)

Establishment (ages 21-26)

What are alternative occupations, firms, and jobs?

What are my interests and capabilities?

How do I get the work accomplished?

Am I performing as expected?

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Career Stages (2)

Advancement (ages 26-40)

Am I advancing as expected?

What long-term options are available?

How do I become more effective and efficient?

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Career Stages (3)

Maintenance (ages 40-60)

How do I help others?

Should I reassess and redirect my career?

Withdrawal (age 60 and above)

What are my interests outside of work?

Will I be financially secure?

What retirement options are available to me?

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Career and Human Resources Planning

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Career Development Interventions (1)

Role & Structure Interventions

Realistic job preview

Provides members accurate expectation of work requirements

Job rotation and challenging assignments

Provide interesting work assignments

Consultative roles

Help members fill productive roles later in their career

Phased retirement

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Career Development Interventions (2)

Individual Employee Development Interventions

Assessment centers

Select and develop members for managerial and technical jobs

Developmental training

Provide education and training opportunities

Performance management

Provide knowledge about career progress and work effectiveness

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Career Development Interventions (3)

Performance Management

Provides knowledge about career progress and work effectiveness

Work Life Balance

Helps members balance work and personal goals

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Organization Development & Change 11 edition Thomas G. Cummings • Christopher G. Worley

CHAPTER

Performance Management

Learning Objectives

Understand the components of a performance management system.

Describe and evaluate the effectiveness of goal setting interventions in organizations.

Understand the application of performance appraisal interventions.

Discuss how reward systems interventions can be applied in organizations.

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A Performance Management Model

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Characteristics of Effective Goals

Goals are Challenging

Challenging but realistic

Goals are set participatively

Goals are Clear

Goals are specific and operationally defined

Resources for goal achievement are negotiated

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Approaches to Goal Setting

Management by Objectives (MBO)

Facilitates employee development and support

Balanced Scorecard

Goals at different organization levels with clear link to business

Key Performance Indicators (KPI’s)

Establishing goal difficulty and level of participation

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Performance Appraisal Elements

Elements	Traditional Approaches	High Involvement
Purpose	Organization, legal Fragmented	Developmental Integrated
Appraiser	Supervisor or manager	Appraisee, co-workers, and others
Role of Appraisee	Passive recipient	Active participant
Measurement	Subjective Concerned with validity	Objective and subjective
Timing	Period, fixed, administratively driven	Dynamic, timely, employee- or work-driven

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Performance Appraisal Application Stages

Select the appropriate stakeholders

Diagnose the current situation

Establish the system’s purposes and objectives

Design the performance appraisal system

Experiment with implementation

Evaluate and monitor the system

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Reward System Design Features (1)

DESIGN FEATURE	DEFINITION
Person/Job Based vs. Performance Based	The extent to which rewards are based on the person, the job or the outcomes of the work
Market Position	The relationship between what an organization pays and what other organizations pay (External Equity)
Internal Equity	The extent to which people doing similar work within and organization are rewarded the same
Hierarchy	The extent to which people in higher positions get more and varied rewards
Centralization	The extent to which reward system design, decisions and administration are standardized
Rewards Mix	The extent to which different types of rewards are available and offered to people
Security	The extent to which work is guaranteed
Seniority	The extent to which rewards are based on length of service

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Reward System Design Features (2)

Availability

Timeliness

Performance Contingency

Durability

Equity

Visibility

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Types of Reward Systems

Pay

Skill-based pay plans

Performance-based pay systems link pay to performance

Gain sharing involves paying bonuses based on improvements in the operating results

Promotions

Benefits

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Salary Based Pay for Performance Ratings

		Ties Pay to Performance	Produces Negative Side Effects	Encourages Cooperation	Employee Acceptance
SALARY REWARD
Individual Plan	Productivity	4	1	1	4
	Cost Effectiveness	3	1	1	4
	Superiors’ Rating	3	1	1	3
Group	Productivity	3	1	2	4
	Cost Effectiveness	3	3	2	4
	Superiors’ Rating	2	1	2	3
Organization-Wide	Productivity	2	1	3	4
	Cost Effectiveness	2	1	2	4

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Stock/Bonus Pay for Performance Ratings

		Ties Pay to Performance	Produces Negative Side Effects	Encourages Cooperation	Employee Acceptance
SALARY REWARD
Individual Plan	Productivity	5	3	1	2
	Cost Effectiveness	4	2	1	2
	Superiors’ Rating	4	2	1	2
Group	Productivity	4	1	3	3
	Cost Effectiveness	3	1	3	3
	Superiors’ Rating	3	1	3	3
Organization-Wide	Productivity	3	1	3	4
	Cost Effectiveness	3	1	3	4
	Profit	2	1	3	3

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Gain-Sharing Pay Plan Considerations

Process of design – participative or top-down?

Organizational unit covered – plant or companywide?

Determining the bonus – what formula?

Sharing gains – how and when to distribute?

Managing change – how to implement system?

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Organization Development & Change 11 edition Thomas G. Cummings • Christopher G. Worley

CHAPTER

Transorganizational Change

Learning Objectives

Explain the rationale and logic behind organization collaboration.

Describe and apply OD interventions that enable mergers and acquisitions.

Discuss and apply the OD process to strategic alliance formation and development.

Describe the process of network formation and transorganizational development as well as how networks change.

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Transorganizational Rationale

Transorganizational strategies allow organizations to perform tasks that are too costly and complicated for single organizations to perform

Goods and services are exchanged between organizations and transactions occur

Transorganizational strategies work best when transactions occur frequently and are well understood

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Transorganizational Systems

Members maintain their separate organizational identities and goals

Tend to be underorganized and member organizations are loosely coupled

Different from mergers and acquisitions

Network interventions may be appropriate

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Mergers and Acquisitions

Merger – the integration of two previously independent organizations into a completely new organization

Acquisition – the purchase of one organization by another for integration into the acquiring organization.

Distinct from transorganizational systems, such as alliances and networks, because at least one of the organizations ceases to exist.

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Merger and Acquisition Rationale

Diversification

Vertical integration

Gaining access to global markets, technology, or other resources

Achieving operational efficiencies, improved innovation, or resource sharing

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Merger and Acquisition Application Stages (1)

Pre-combination Phase

Search for and select candidate

Create and M&A team

Establish the business case

Perform a due diligence assessment

Develop merger integration plans

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Merger and Acquisition Application Stages (2)

Legal Combination Phase

The two organizations settle on the terms of the deal, gain approval from regulatory agencies and shareholders, and file appropriate legal documents

Operational Combination Phase

Implementing the operational, technical and cultural integration activities

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Strategic Alliance Interventions

When two organizations formally agree to pursue a set of goals

There is sharing of resources, intellectual property, people, capital, technology, capabilities or physical assets

Common alliances are licensing agreements, franchises, long-term contracts, and joint ventures

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Strategic Alliance Application Stages

Alliance Strategy Formulation

Clarify the business strategy and why an alliance is needed

Partner Selection

Leverage similarities and differences to create competitive advantage

Alliance Structuring and Start-up

Build and leverage trust in the relationship

Alliance Operation and Adjustment

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Network Interventions

Involves three or more companies joined together for a common purpose

Each organization in the network has goals related to the network as well as those focused on self-interest

Characterized by two types of change: (1) creating the initial network (transorganizational development) and (2) managing change within an established network

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Managing Network Change (1)

How a network was established influences the willingness and ability to change

Emergent properties or characteristics add complexity to change

Network behaviors and patterns can be expected and unexpected with complex interactions among members of the network

Knowledge of the “whole system” is required to implement change

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Application Stages for Transorganizational Development

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Managing Network Change (2)

Create instability in the network

Manage the tipping point

The Law of the Few: Salespeople, Mavens, Connectors

Stickiness

The Power of Context

Rely on self-organization

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Organization Development & Change 11 edition Thomas G. Cummings • Christopher G. Worley

CHAPTER

Workforce Diversity, Inclusion, and Wellness

Learning Objectives

Examine human resources management interventions related to workforce diversity and inclusion.

Understand and evaluate the effectiveness of employee wellness interventions.

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A Framework for Managing Diversity

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Age Diversity

Trends

Median age up

Distribution of ages changing

Implications

Health care

Mobility

Security

Interventions

Wellness programs

Job design

Career development and planning

Reward systems

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Gender Diversity

Trends

Percentage of women in work force increasing

Dual-income families increasing

Implications

Child care

Maternity/paternity leaves

Single parents

Interventions

Job design

Fringe benefit rewards

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Race and Ethnicity Diversity

Trends

Minorities represent large segments of workforce and a small segment of top management/senior executives

Qualifications and experience of minority employees is often overlooked

Implications

Discrimination

Interventions

Equal employment opportunities

Mentoring programs

Education and training

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Sexual Orientation Diversity

Trends

Number of single-sex households up

More liberal attitudes toward sexual orientation

Implications

Discrimination

Interventions

Equal employment opportunities

Fringe benefits

Education and training

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Disability Diversity

Trends

The number of people with disabilities entering the work force is increasing

Implications

Job skills and challenge issues

Physical space design

Respect and dignity

Interventions

Performance management

Job design

Career planning and development

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Culture and Values Diversity

Trends

Rising proportion of immigrant and minority-group workers

Shift in rewards

Implications

Flexible organizational policies

Autonomy

Affirmation and respect

Interventions

Career planning and development

Employee involvement

Reward systems

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Stress and Wellness Interventions

Goals

Increase work and job-related satisfactions

Reduce stress to improve member’s general health

Diagnosing Stress

Workplace Stressors

Individual Differences

Charting Stressors

Health Profiling

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A Model of Stress and Work

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Stress and Wellness Interventions (1)

Role Clarification

A systematic process for determining expectations and understanding work roles

Manager defined roles and compared with perceived job duties and responsibilities to come to consensus on intended definitions

Supportive relationships

Establish trust and positive relationships

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Stress and Wellness Interventions (2)

Work leaves

Paid or unpaid leaves, and sabbaticals

Temporary time off for renewal or pursuit of personal interests while retaining a valued employee

Health Facilities

Employee Assistance Programs

Establish trust and positive relationships

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Stress and Wellness Interventions (3)

Employee Assistance Programs

Designed to help the individual directly

Provide a way to respond to extreme or chronic stress

Help organizations treat workers whose personal problems affect their performance

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Organization Development & Change 11 edition Thomas G. Cummings • Christopher G. Worley

CHAPTER

Diagnosing

Learning Objectives

Discuss the philosophy and purpose of diagnosis in organization development (OD).

Explain the role of diagnostic models in OD, especially the open-systems model.

Describe and apply organization-level diagnostic processes.

Describe and apply group-level diagnostic processes.

Describe and apply individual-level diagnostic processes.

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Diagnosis Defined

Diagnosis is a collaborative process between organizational members and the OD consultant to collect pertinent information, analyze it, and draw conclusions for action planning and intervention.

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The Open Systems Model

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Properties of Systems

Environments

Inputs, Transformations, and Outputs

Boundaries

Feedback

Alignment

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Diagnosing Organizational Systems

The key to effective diagnosis is…

Know what to look for at each organizational level

Recognize how the levels affect each other

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Organization-Level Diagnostic Model

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Group-Level Diagnostic Model

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Individual-Level Diagnostic Model

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Organization Environments and Inputs

Environmental Types

General Environment

Task Environment and Industry Structure

Enacted Environment

Environmental Dimensions

Rate of Change and Complexity

Information Uncertainty

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Organization Design Components (1)

Strategy

The way an organization uses its resources (human, economic, or technical) to gain and sustain a competitive advantage

Work Processes

The way an organization converts inputs into products and services

Structure

The way an organization divides and coordinates work into and across subunits which assign tasks to groups or individuals.

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Organization Design Components (2)

Management Processes

Methods for processing information, making decisions, and controlling the operation of the organization

Closely related to structural coordination

Monitor organizational operations and relate information about work activities to managers and members

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Organization Design Components (3)

Human Resource Systems

The mechanisms for selecting, developing, appraising, and rewarding organization members

Culture

The basic assumptions, values and norms shared by organization members

Represents both an “outcome” of organization design and a “foundation” or “constraint” to change

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Organization-Level Outputs

Outputs are measures of how well the design contributes to organization effectiveness on three kinds of outcomes.

Organization Performance

Profits, profitability, stock price

Productivity

Cost/employee, cost/unit, error rates, quality

Stakeholder Satisfaction

Market share, employee satisfaction, stock price, carbon footprint

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Alignment

Diagnosis involves understanding each of the parts in the model and then assessing how the elements of the strategic orientation align with each other and with the inputs.

Organization effectiveness is likely to be high when there is good alignment

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Key Alignment Questions

Does the organization’s strategy fit with the inputs?

Do the organization design components fit with each other to jointly support the strategy?

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Organization Development & Change 11 edition Thomas G. Cummings • Christopher G. Worley

CHAPTER

Interpersonal and Group Process Approaches

Learning Objectives

Understand the diagnostic issues associated with interpersonal relations and group dynamics interventions.

Illustrate the principles of the process consultation intervention.

Describe the process of third-party conflict resolution.

Discuss and evaluate the core OD intervention of team building.

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Process Interventions

A set of activities on the part of the consultant that helps group members understand, diagnose, and improve their behaviors to devise more effective ways of working.

Interventions are aimed at helping the group become better able to use its own resources to identify and solve interpersonal problems and devise more effective ways of working.

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Definition of Process Consultation

The creation of a relationship that permits the client to perceive, understand, and act on the process events

An approach that helps people and groups help themselves

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Diagnostic Issues in Group Process Interventions

Group Process Issues

Communications

The functional roles of group members

Group problem solving and decision making

Group norms

Leadership and authority

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Basic Process Interventions

Individual Interventions

Aimed at helping people better communicate with others

Johari Window

Group Interventions

Aimed at the process, content or structure of the group

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The Johari Window

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Improving Communications Using the Johari Window

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Third-Party Interventions

Activities that focus on interpersonal conflicts within the organization

Interventions help involved parties interact with each other directly, facilitating diagnosis of the conflict and its resolution

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Cyclical Model of Interpersonal Conflict

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Strategies for Conflict Resolution

Determine a clear understanding of the nature and type of conflict and triggering factors

Set limits on the timing and extent of the conflict resolution meetings

Help the parties to cope differently with the conflict

Attempt to eliminate or resolve the basic issues in the conflict

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Team Building in OD

Team building focuses explicitly on helping groups perform tasks and solve problems more effectively

Team building can facilitate other OD interventions such as employee involvement or work design

Team building in OD is professionally facilitated and strongly connected to a diagnosis and the improvement of the team’s functioning.

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Team Building Activities

Determine the Intervention Target

One or more individuals

A group’s operation and behavior

A group’s relationships with the rest of the organization

Determine the Intervention Orientation

Diagnostic

Developmental

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Types of Teams

Groups reporting to the same manager

Groups involving people with common goals

Temporary groups formed to accomplish a specific, one-time task

Groups consisting of people whose work roles are interdependent

Groups with no formal links but whose collective purpose requires coordination

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Focus of Team Building Interventions

Individual Behavior in the Group

Alter the group’s ongoing processes by focusing on the behaviors and attitudes of individual members.

Group Operation and Behavior

An inward look by the team at its own performance, behavior and culture for the purpose of improving effectiveness

Group Relationships with the Organization

Understand the group’s role within the organization including interaction, support, and collaboration

Manager’s Role

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Organization Development & Change 11 edition Thomas G. Cummings • Christopher G. Worley

CHAPTER

Organization Development for Economic, Ecological, and Social Outcomes

Learning Objectives

Describe OD interventions that help organizations balance economic, social, and environmental objectives.

Describe sustainable management organizations (SMOs) and how OD can assist in their design and development.

Describe global social change organizations and how to adopt OD practices to develop them.

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Sustainable Management Organizations

Sustainable Management Organizations (SMOs) are designed to achieve sustainable effectiveness. They can perform in three areas—people, planet, and profit—and are agile enough to remain effective over time .

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Strategies that Support Sustainable Effectiveness

Breadth

Multiple countries, markets, technologies or products and services increase the complexity of a firm’s carbon footprint and social impact

Aggressiveness

In general, SMOs are wary of too much aggressiveness too often and have growth objectives that are reasonable and reasoned.

Differentiation

SMOs understand why customers make purchasing decisions and how the organization’s product and service features align with those choices.

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Objectives that Support Sustainable Effectiveness

Create positive economic outcomes while rejecting the goal of maximizing profit or shareholder returns.

Create positive ecological outcomes with awareness of carbon footprints and the planet’s ecology.

Create positive social outcomes that contribute to human and cultural well-being with a clear perspective on social values and issues.

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Components of Organization Identity

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Agile Organization Designs for SMOs (1)

Work processes

Core and exploitive

Creative and exploratory

Innovative

Structures

External focus on external environments

“Boundary Spanning”

Maximum surface area

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Agile Organization Designs for SMOs (2)

Management Processes

Flexible decision-making, processes that leverage information from external sources

Transparency; information is moved throughout the organization wherever it is needed

Decision-making is timely and relevant to keep pace with changing environments

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Agile Organization Designs for SMO’s

Human Resource Systems

Multiple types of employment arrangements, individuality of employees and development of skills

Alignment of financial and non-financial reward systems the support the triple-bottom-line

Rewards motivate and reinforce change

Development and reward systems support the shared leadership philosophy

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SMO Application Stages (1)

Identifying and Redefining Organization Identity

Identify the organization’s values-in-use, brand promise and reputation support agility

Leverage those that support sustained effectiveness

Repurposing the Board of Directors

Membership reflects important stakeholders and may establish committees for sustainable objectives.

Integrate social and ecological goals with economic objectives of traditional shareholder value perspective

Develop effective decision-making skills in order to balance tough choices between sustainability actions and financial performance

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SMO Application Stages (2)

Building Capabilities

Identify existing capabilities and determine which new abilities are necessary

Develop multi-stakeholder decision making

Create a change capability –

Members develop change management skills

Design an organization effectiveness function with competencies in strategic planning, organization design, and change management

“Learning by doing”

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SMO Application Stages (3)

Sequencing the Changes

Work systems redesign

Align future goals with current behaviors

Clarifying the Strategy

Gain key stakeholder support for the new vision, mission and values

Building an agile design

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Global Social Change Organizations

Global Social Change Organizations (GSCOs) are not-for-profit and nongovernmental entities that are created at the grassroots level to help communities and societies address complex and important problems such as unemployment, race relations, homelessness, hunger, disease, water quality, and political instability.

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Characteristics of GSCOs

Commitment to creating environmentally and socially sustainable world futures

Innovative social-organizational structures that enable cooperation across previously polarized or constrained boundaries

Values of empowerment and people-centered forms of action

Linked globally and locally in structure, membership or partnership

Multiorganizational partnerships to form new hybrids of business, government and volunteerism

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GSCOs Application Stages

Building the Local Organization

Values to create vision

Recognizing conflict

Problem of success

Creating Horizontal Linkages

Networks of local organizations with similar views and objective

Developing Vertical Linkages

Upward communication and influence to governmental and policy-level decision-making processes.

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Organization Development & Change 11 edition Thomas G. Cummings • Christopher G. Worley

CHAPTER

Continuous Change

Learning Objectives

Compare and contrast four continuous change interventions.

Describe the elements and processes associated with the dynamic strategy-making intervention.

Define the demands of turbulent environments and describe the self-design intervention.

Outline the definition and application of organization learning interventions.

Explain the logic and process of developing agile organizations.

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Criteria for Dynamic Strategy Making

Speed over delay

Breadth over narrowness

Flexibility over rigidity

Empowerment over autocracy

Simplicity over complexity

Unity over fragmentation

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A Dynamic Strategy System

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Elements of the Statement of Strategic Direction

Competitive Logic

A value propositions that connects the firm’s capabilities to market opportunities

Goals

Unifying target for achievement; financial and a single rallying goal

Organization

Formal organization design which aligns, work, structure, human resource practices and management processes to the competitive logic and goals

Action Plan

Initiatives and specific steps required to implement the strategy; sets priorities over a specific timeframe

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Dynamic Strategy Application Stages

Choosing relevant stakeholders

Holding the first retreat

Engaging stakeholders between the first and second retreats

Holding the second retreat

Implementing actions

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Self-Designing Organizations

Systemic change process altering most features of the organization

Process is ongoing, never finished—continuous improvement and change

Learning as You Go—on-site innovation

Need support of multiple stakeholders

All levels of the organization adopt new strategies and change behaviors

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The Self-Design Change Process

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Learning Organizations

Organization Learning interventions emphasize the structures and social processes that enable employees and teams to learn and share knowledge

Knowledge Management focuses on the tools and techniques that enable organizations to collect, organize, and translate information into useful knowledge

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How Organization Learning Affects Performance

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Characteristics of Learning Organizations

Structures emphasize teamwork, information sharing, empowerment

Information systems facilitate rapid acquisition and sharing of complex information to manage knowledge for competitive advantage

Human resources reinforce new skills and knowledge

Management processes facilitate rapid sharing of rich, complex information

Leaders model openness and freedom to try new things while communicating a compelling vision

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Organization Learning Process

Single loop learning

Most common form of learning

Aimed at adapting and improving the status quo

Double loop learning

Generative learning

Questions and changes existing assumptions and conditions

Deutero-learning

Learning how to learn

Learning how to improve single and double loop learning

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Organization Learning Activities

Discover Theories in Use and Their Consequences

Attend to the knowledge management practices that support learning.

Continuously monitor and improve the learning process.

‹#›

Discover Theories in Use

Dialogue

Systems Thinking

Left-Hand, Right-Hand Column

The Ladder of Inference

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The Ladder of Inference

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Knowledge Management Practices that Support Learning

Generating Knowledge

Identify knowledge for competitive strategy

Develop ways to acquire or create that knowledge

Organizing Knowledge

Put knowledge into a usable form

Codification and Personalization

Distributing Knowledge

Making knowledge easy to access, use & reuse

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Agile Organizations

Organizations with the ability to make timely and effective changes that support sustained levels of high performance.

Agile organizations typically operate in complex and rapidly changing environments

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Agile Organization Design Features

Routine

Strategizing:

Top management establishes and refreshes and the organization’s purpose, direction and market position

Supports a “culture of candor” where organization members are expected to challenge the status quo.

Perceiving:

The structures and methods for sensing, interpreting, and communicating relevant short-term and long-term shifts in the external environment

Testing:

The process of experimenting, innovating, and learning on a continuous basis

Implementing:

The ability to facilitate day-to-day changes in products, operations, structures, and systems, but more importantly, orchestrate the development of new capabilities, business models, and strategies

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Applying Agility Principles

Reframe culture as a facilitator of change

Create a change-friendly culture

Move from designing for stability to designing for flexibility

Agile designs emphasize a flat and flexible organization structure

Human resources practices support flexibility and speed by managing the right talent for change

Move from change as a project to change as a capability

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Organization Development & Change 11 edition Thomas G. Cummings • Christopher G. Worley

CHAPTER

Work Design

Learning Objectives

Describe the engineering approach to work design.

Explore and evaluate the motivational approach to work design.

Discuss and apply the principles of sociotechnical systems work design.

Learn how to design work to meet technical and personal needs.

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Work Design Approaches

Engineering: Traditional Jobs & Groups

High specification and routinization

Low task variety and autonomy

Reengineering

Revolutionary, radical change in work processes

Integrated jobs, tasks and structures

Motivational: Enriched Jobs

High task variety and autonomy

Feedback of results

Sociotechnical: Self-Managing Teams

Control over total task

Multi-skilled, flexible, and self-regulating

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The Engineering (Traditional)Approach

Based on Scientific Management

Highly specified behaviors

Narrow range of skills

Low levels of authority and discretion

Highly repetitive

Benefits

Low selection and training costs

High productivity

High levels of control

‹#›

The Reengineering Approach

Radical and revolutionary redesign of business process to achieve dramatic improvements in performance

Leverages latest developments information technology to enable significant change

Focus on work processes breaks down functional and divisional organization structures and redesign work around task interdependencies

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The Reengineering Process

Prepare the organization

Specify the organization’s strategy and objectives

Fundamentally rethink the way work gets done

Identify and analyze core business processes

Define performance objectives

Design new processes

Restructure the organization around the new business processes.

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Characteristics of Reengineered Organizations

Work units change from functional departments to process teams

Jobs change from simple tasks to multidimensional work

People’s roles change from controlled to empowered

The focus of performance measures and compensation shifts from activities to results

Organization structures change from hierarchical to flat

Managers change from supervisors to coaches; executives change from scorekeepers to leaders

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The Motivational Approach

Organization effectiveness is a function of member needs and satisfaction

Seeks to improve employee performance and satisfaction by enriching jobs

Provides opportunity for autonomy, responsibility, doing a complete job and performance feedback

‹#›

Enriched Jobs Overview

‹#›

Core Job Dimensions

Skill Variety – extent to which multiple skills are used

Task Identity – extent to which an individual works on a “whole” task

Task Significance – impact of the work on others

Autonomy – amount of discretion in the work

Feedback from the Work Itself – extent to which work provides information on effectiveness

‹#›

Job Enrichment Application Stages

Perform a thorough diagnosis

Form natural work units

Combine tasks

Establish client relationships

Vertical loading

Opening feedback channels

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Sociotechnical Systems Work Design

Sociotechnical systems (STS) theory is based on two basic ideas:

An organization or work unit is a combined, social-plus-technical system (sociotechnical) that should be “jointly optimized”

The system is open in relation to their environment and must interact with their environments to survive and develop

Self-managed work teams is the most prevalent application of STS

‹#›

Sociotechnical Systems Design

Can work system be designed to better fit with the environment?

Can work system be designed to better operate conversion process and control variances?

Can work system be designed to better satisfy members’ needs?

‹#›

Model of Self-Managed Work Teams

‹#›

Team Task Design and Development

Whole and interdependent tasks

Common mission and goals

Requisite multi-skills

Task and boundary control

Feedback of results

Minimum specification design

Develop from narrow to broad boundaries for discretion

‹#›

Team Process Interventions

Promoting healthy interpersonal relationships

Coordinating efforts

Weighting member inputs and sharing knowledge

Making good decisions

Confronting and resolving conflicts

‹#›

Organization Support Systems

Recruitment and Selection

Training

Evaluation and reward systems

Leadership support

Use of freed-up time

‹#›

Self-Managed Work Teams Application Stages

Sanction the design effort

Diagnose the work system

Generate appropriate designs

Specify support systems

Implement and evaluate the work design

Continual change and improvement

‹#›

Designing Work for Technical and Personal Needs

Technical Factors

Technical interdependence: the extent to which cooperation among workers is required

Technical Uncertainty: the amount of information processing and decision making among workers necessary to do the work

Personal Need Factors

Social Needs: the desire for significant social relationships

Growth Needs: the desire for personal accomplishment, learning, and development.

‹#›

Work Designs That Optimize Technology

‹#›

Work Designs that Optimize Personal Needs

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Organization Development & Change 11 edition Thomas G. Cummings • Christopher G. Worley

CHAPTER

Future Directions in Organization Development

Learning Objectives

Explore OD’s current state and several trends in its larger context.

Explore several implications for how OD will be practiced in the future

‹#›

Current State of Organization Development (1)

OD continues use of long-standing interventions widely accepted as best practice

Team Building

Process consultation

Survey feedback

Work design

Leadership development

‹#›

Current State of Organization Development (2)

OD practice continues to be based on development of organizations that value human potential, trust, and collaboration

OD is experiencing rapid, expansive growth in interventions that help organizations facing complex and rapidly changing environments; e.g. change management

‹#›

Current State of Organization Development (3)

OD knowledge and practice base are constantly refreshed with active research

Researchers at universities and applied research center’s test the efficacy of different OD interventions

Action research activities

Evidence-based management practices

‹#›

Economic Trends in the Context of OD

Globalization

Concern for social and ecological consequences

Increased concentration of income and wealth

Climate change and global warming threats

Geopolitical instability and geostrategic risks

‹#›

Technological Trends in the Context of OD

Consequences of technology

Cyberattacks on business and political systems

Diminished human capabilities

Assumed positive relationship with productivity

Changes in work skills and design

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Organizational Trends in the Context of OD

Organizations face motivational choices

Individualism, capitalistic

Collective, community

Sustainability vs profitability

Organizations face structural choices

Small, Networked and Agile

Large, Centralized and controlling

‹#›

Implications for OD’s Future

“Stick to its Knitting”

Continue supporting the fundamental human and social process issues within the organization

Make pertinent changes in practices and objectives to align with emerging trends

Focus on helping organizations gain the capability to change and develop themselves

‹#›

OD and Change Management

OD change management interventions are developmental

Building organizational capabilities to be self-regulating, problem solving, and adaptable to its environment

Supporting organization learning to helping organizations and members change and improve themselves.

‹#›

Toward More Integrated OD Practices

‹#›

Toward Responsible Progress

‹#›

Toward More Inclusive Values

OD’s values will become more inclusive and include economic, social and ecological objectives.

Broader sets of criteria for defining OD and assessing organization effectiveness

More comprehensive guidelines for OD interventions

Multiple viewpoints, values and beliefs are heard and nurtured over time

OD would create new interventions based on more inclusive values

‹#›

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Organization Development & Change 11 edition Thomas G. Cummings • Christopher G. Worley

CHAPTER

Transformational Change

Learning Objectives

Describe the characteristics of transformational change.

Present the integrated strategic change intervention and understand how it represents the revolutionary and systemic characteristics of transformational change.

Explain the organization design process, including domestic and worldwide applications.

Discuss the process and key success factors associated with downsizing.

‹#›

Characteristics of Transformational Change

Change is triggered by environmental and internal disruptions

Change is initiated by senior executives and line managers

Change involves multiple stakeholders

Change is systemic and revolutionary

Change involves significant learning and a new paradigm

‹#›

Integrated Strategic Change

Integrated Strategic Change ………

is a deliberate coordinated process that

leads to gradually or radically systemic

realignments between the environment

and a firm’s strategic orientation resulting

in improvement in performance and

effectiveness.

‹#›

Integrated Strategic Change (ISC) Key Features

Strategic Orientation

Creating the Strategic Plan

Integrating Individuals and Groups into the Process

‹#›

The Integrated Strategic Change Process

‹#›

Implementing the ISC Process

Strategic Analysis

Assess the readiness for change and top management’s ability to carry out change

Diagnose the Current Strategic Orientation

Strategic Choice

Top management determines the content of the strategic change

Designing the Strategic Change Plan

Development of a comprehensive agenda to achieve the change

Implementing the Strategic Change Plan

‹#›

Organization Design

Conceptual Framework

Strategy

Structure

Work Design

Human Resources Practices

Management Processes

Key Concepts

Fit, Congruence, Alignment among Organizational Elements

‹#›

Comprehensive Model for Diagnosing Systems: Organizational Level

‹#›

The Functional Structure (1)

‹#›

The Functional Structure (2)

Advantages

Promotes and develops technical specializations

Reduces duplication of scarce resources and supports flexible deployment

Enhances career development, facilitates communication when superiors share expertise with subordinates

Supports the development of common processes

Disadvantages

Emphasizes routine tasks; encourages short time horizons

Fosters narrow perspectives by managers, not business metrics and broader criteria for decision making

Processes cut across functions making coordination and scheduling more difficult; obscures accountability for overall outcomes; managers and employees may not have a line of sight to business

Contingencies

Stable and certain environment

Small- to medium-size

Routine technology, interdependence within functions

Goals of efficiency and technical quality

‹#›

The Divisional Structure (1)

‹#›

The Divisional Structure (2)

Advantages

Recognizes sources of interdepartmental dependencies, reduces complexity

Allows diversification an expansion of skills and training

Ensures accountability by departmental managers; promotes delegation of authority

Heightens departmental cohesion and involvement in work

Disadvantages

May use skills and resources inefficiently; difficult to coordination across divisions

Limits career advancement by specialists to movements out of their departments; impedes specialist’s exposure to others; hard to create common processes

Line of sight is to business; divisional objectives over organization objectives

Contingencies

Unstable and uncertain environments

Large size

Technological interdependence across functions

Goals of product specialization and innovation

‹#›

The Matrix Structure (1)

‹#›

The Matrix Structure (2)

Advantages

Makes specialized, functional knowledge available to all projects

Use people flexibly and can adapt to environmental changes

Maintains consistency by forcing communication between managers

Recognizes and provides mechanisms for dealing with legitimate, multiple sources of power

Disadvantages

Can be difficult to implement; makes inconsistent demands and can promote conflict and short-term crisis orientation

Increases role ambiguity, stress, and anxiety and may reward political skills over technical skills

Performance is lowered without power balancing between projects and functions

Contingencies

Dual focus on unique product demands and technical specialization

Pressure for high information-processing capacity

Pressure for shared resources

‹#›

The Process-Based Structure (1)

‹#›

The Process-Based Structure (2)

Advantages

Focuses resources on customer satisfaction

Improves speed and efficiency; Adapts to environmental change rapidly

Reduces boundaries between departments; Increases ability to see total work flow; Enhances employee involvement

Lowers costs dues to overhead

Disadvantages

Can threaten middle managers and staff specialists; Requires changes in command-and-control mindsets

Duplicates scarce resources

Requires new skills and knowledge to manage lateral relationships and teams

May take longer to make decisions in teams; Can be ineffective if wrong processes are identified

Contingencies

Uncertain and changing environments

Moderate to large size

Non-routine and highly interdependent technologies

Customer-oriented goals

‹#›

The Customer-Centric Structure (1)

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The Customer-Centric Structure (2)

Advantages

Presents one integrated face to the customer

Generates a deep understanding of customer requirements

Enables organization to customize and tailor solutions for customers

Builds a robust customer response capability

Disadvantages

Customer teams can be too inwardly focused

Sharing learnings and developing functional skills is difficult

Managing lateral relations between customer-facing and back office units is difficult

Developing common processes front and back is problematic

Clarifying the marketing function is problematic

Contingencies

Highly complex and uncertain environments

Large Organizations

Goals of customer focus and solutions orientation

Highly uncertain technologies

‹#›

Comparing Product-Centric with Customer-Centric Structures

Organization Feature	Product-Centric	Customer-Centric
Goal	Best product for customer	Best solution for customer
Source of Value	New products, new features	Customized bundles of products, services, support, education and consulting
Core Structures	Product teams, product reviews, product profit centers	Customer teams and segments, customer P&L’s
Core Processes	New-product process	Customer relationship management processes and integration/solutions

‹#›

The Network Structure

‹#›

Organization Designs

	MECHANISTIC DESIGN	ORGANIC DESIGN
Strategy	Cost minimization	Innovation
Structure	Formal/hierarchical Functional	Flat, lean, and flexible Matrix, process, and network
Work Design	Traditional jobs Traditional work groups	Enriched jobs Self-managed teams
Human Resource Practices	Selection to fit job Up-front training Standard reward mix Pay for performance and individual merit Job-based pay	Selection to fit organization Continuous training and development Individual choice rewards Pay for performance and business success Skill-based pay
Management and Information Systems	Command and control Closed, exclusive, centralized information	Employee involvement Open, inclusive, distributed information

‹#›

Worldwide Organization Designs

Offer products/services in more than one country

Balance product and functional concerns with geographic issues of distance, time, and culture

Carry out coordinated activities across cultural boundaries using a wide variety of personnel

‹#›

Worldwide Success Factors

‹#›

The International Design

Characteristics of the International Design

Sell existing products/services to nondomestic markets

Goals of increased foreign revenues

Implementing the International Orientation

OD facilitates extending the existing strategy into the new market

Cross-cultural training and strategic planning

‹#›

The Global Design

Characteristics of the Global Design

Centralized with a global product structure

Goals of efficiency through volume

Implementing the Global Orientation

OD supports career planning, role clarification, employee involvement, conflict management and senior management team building to help achieve improved operational efficiency

OD helps the organization transition to global integration from local responsiveness

‹#›

Multinational Design

Characteristics of the Multinational Design

Operate a decentralized organization

Goals of local responsiveness through specialization

Implementing the Multinational Orientation

OD helps with intergroup relations, local management selection and team building

OD facilitates management development, reward systems, and strategic alliances

‹#›

Transnational Design

Characteristics of the Transnational Design

Tailored products

Goals of learning and responsiveness through integrations

Implementing the Transnational Orientation

Extensive selection and rotation

Acquire cultural knowledge and develop intergroup relations

Build corporate vision

‹#›

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Organization Development & Change 11 edition Thomas G. Cummings • Christopher G. Worley

CHAPTER

Employee Involvement

Learning Objectives

Define the principles of employee involvement and describe its relationship to performance.

Compare three employee involvement interventions: parallel structures, total quality management, and high-involvement organizations.

‹#›

Overview of Employee Involvement

Employee involvement seeks to increase members’ input into decisions that affect organization performance and employee well-being.

Employee involvement (EI) is the broad term for diverse approaches to gain greater participation in relevant workplace decisions.

‹#›

Definition of Employee Involvement

Power

Extent to which influence and authority are pushed down into the organization

Information

Extent to which relevant information is shared with members

Knowledge and Skills

Extent to which members have relevant skills and knowledge and opportunities to gain them

Rewards

Extent to which opportunities for internal and external rewards are tied to effectiveness

‹#›

How EI Affects Productivity

‹#›

Secondary Effects of EI on Productivity

‹#›

Employee Involvement Interventions

Application	Power	Information	Knowledge/Skill	Rewards
Parallel Structures (e.g., Employee Resource Groups, Union-Management Cooperation)	Low	Moderate	Moderate	Low
Total Quality Management (e.g., continuous improvement, six sigma	High	High	High	High
High Involvement Organizations	High	High	High	High

‹#›

Parallel Structures Application Stages

Define the parallel structure’s purpose and scope

Form a steering committee

Communicate with organization members

Form employee problem-solving groups

Address the problems and issues

Implement and evaluate the changes

‹#›

Total Quality Management

Comprehensive approach to Employee Involvement

Increases workers’ knowledge and skills through extensive training, provides relevant information to employees, pushes decision-making power downward in the organization, and ties rewards to performance.

Known as “Business Excellence”, “Continuous Process Improvement”, “Continuous Quality”, “Lean”, and “Six Sigma”

‹#›

Deming’s Quality Guidelines

Create a constancy of purpose

Adopt a new philosophy

End lowest cost purchasing practices

Institute leadership

Eliminate empty slogans

Eliminate numerical quotas

Institute on-the-job training

Retrain vigorously

Drive out fear

Break down barriers between departments

Take action to accomplish transformation

Improve processes constantly and forever

Cease dependence on mass inspection

Remove barriers to pride in workmanship

‹#›

Deming’s Seven Deadly Sins

Lack of constancy of purpose

Emphasizing short-term profits and immediate dividends

Evaluation of performance, merit rating, or annual review

Mobility of top management

Running a company only on visible figures

Excessive medical costs

Excessive costs of warranty

‹#›

TQM Application Stages

Gain long-term senior management commitment

Train members in quality methods

Start quality improvement projects

Measure progress

Reward accomplishment

‹#›

High-Involvement Organizations

Flat, lean organization structures

Enriched work designs

Open information systems

Sophisticated selection and career systems

Extensive training programs

Advanced reward systems

Participatively designed personnel practices

Conducive physical layouts

‹#›

High-Involvement Application Factors

Guided by an explicit statement of values that are strongly held and widely shared by organization member.

Implementation process is participative with managers and employees taking active roles in choosing and implementing the design features.

‹#›

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